The moral hazard effects of consumer responses to targeted cost-sharing.

This paper examines the effects of the reference pricing program implemented by the California Public Employees Retirement System (CalPERS) in 2012. The program uses targeted cost-sharing to incentivize patient price shopping. We find that the program leads to a 10.3% increase in the use of low-price providers and reduces the average cost per procedure by 12.5%. We further estimate that the program reduces medical spending by $218.8 per procedure, which we estimate is approximately 53.7% of the excessive spending that is due to patient choice of higher price providers caused by insurance coverage, at the expense of a $94.3 (or 12.5%) reduction in consumer surplus. The cost savings from the reference pricing program is about two to three times as large as the reduction from implementing a high-deductible health plan, while the accompanying consumer surplus reduction is much smaller under reference pricing.