Properties of cognitive maps constructed from texts.

Subjects in three experiments read texts describing the locations of landmarks in a fictitious town. Later they drew sketch maps and verified sentences describing the relative locations of the landmarks. We predicted that subjects would develop mental models of the town that were organized around important landmarks ("anchors"), as are cognitive maps constructed through real-world navigation. More specifically, we expected that landmarks used in the text as reference points for describing the locations of some other landmarks would emerge as anchors in the subjects' cognitive maps and would consequently be recalled more accurately. Results showed that subjects represented such reference-point landmarks more accurately than they did the locations of other landmarks. This effect was independent of: (1) the perspective from which the text was written (route or survey); (2) whether or not a map was present at learning; (3) the order of information in the text (linear or anchors-first), and (4) the amount of information available to the subjects while drawing sketch maps (the full text, the landmark names only, or no information).