Chemistry and bioactivities of natural steroidal alkaloids.

Steroidal alkaloids possess the basic steroidal skeleton with a nitrogen atom in rings or side chains incorporated as an integral part of the molecule. They have demonstrated a wide range of biological activities, and some of them have even been developed as therapeutic drugs, such as abiraterone acetate (Zytiga®), a blockbuster drug, which has been used for the treatment of prostate cancer. Structurally diverse natural steroidal alkaloids present a wide spectrum of biological activities, which are attractive for natural product chemistry and medicinal chemistry communities. This review comprehensively covers the structural classification, isolation and various biological activities of 697 natural steroidal alkaloids discovered from 1926 to October 2021, with 363 references being cited.

Introduction

Steroidal alkaloids are nitrogenous derivatives of natural steroids. They are an important class of alkaloids and conventional secondary metabolites that occur in plants including Solanaceae, Liliaceae, Apocynaceae, Buxaceae, amphibians and marine organisms. Previous research results exhibited that steroidal alkaloids possess potential anticancer, anticholinergic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and analgesic, anti-myocardial ischemia, anti-giogenesis effects and other activities.

Steroidal alkaloids are already launched as drugs, such as abiraterone acetate, marketed as Zytiga® by Janssen Biotech (a subsidiary of Johnson & Johnson), is a steroidal antiandrogen medication approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) in 2011 and metastatic high-risk castration-sensitive prostate cancer (mCSPC) in 2018 [1]. Zytiga® is a blockbuster drug on the prostate cancer market, and in 2020, it generated almost $2.4 billion in sales from the Johnson & Johnson annual report, with ongoing research into its application for additional indications. Natural steroidal alkaloid cyclovirobuxine D (203) is the main active component of oral drug “huangyangning” tablets listed in the Chinese pharmacopeia 2015. This drug, discovered from a folk prescription in the treatment of rheumatic disease, was approved by the China Food and Drug Administration (CFDA) in 2009 to treat cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, such as coronary heart disease, angina pectoris, arrhythmia, heart failure, hypertension and cardiac neurosis [2]. Several steroidal glycoalkaloids from the local plant Solanum linnaeanum possess activity of slowing skin cancer growth in horses and cattle, in which α-solamargine (500) and α-solasonine (501) were identified. These two active compounds were subsequently developed into a topical treatment for keratoses, basal cell carcinomas, and squamous cell carcinomas, which were marketed in Australia signed Curaderm [3].

Sheep ranchers experienced outbreaks of cyclopic lambs, leading to the discovery of cyclopamine (432) as a plant derived teratogen [4]. Cyclopamine was the first compound found to antagonize the Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway, the constitutive activation of which is intimately implicated in many human malignancies [5]. Vismodegib and sonidegib, cyclopamine derivatives and Hh pathway inhibitors, were FDA-approved for the treatment of basal cell carcinoma and acute myeloid leukemia, respectively [6]. In 2016 cyclopamine was identified as a potent inhibitor of human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) replication [7].

Phyllobates terribilis frogs, made into poison darts by Central American indigenous people, advertise their lethal armament with their gaudy colors. Batrachotoxin (615) is a potent neurotoxin in the skin secretions of these frogs and as a tool to study voltage-sensitive sodium channels of excitable membranes [8, 9]. Toxicity is widespread among living organisms and how these frogs avoid poisoning themselves remains a mystery. A study addressed that a single rat muscle Na+ channel mutation confers batrachotoxin autoresistance [10].

Some reviews related to steroidal alkaloids have been presented since 1953. For example, the chemistry of these alkaloids from the Liliaceae and Solanaceae [11-15], the Apocynaceaethe [16], the Buxaceae [17, 18], the marine organisms [19], synthesis of cephalostatins and ritterazines [20], biosynthesis of Buxaceae alkaloids [21], and biological activities [22, 23]. A comprehensive review was published in 1998 concerning the developments in the field of steroidal alkaloids [24]. In consideration of these reviews providing little information about recent research, we provide an updated review in a concise form, covering comprehensive structure classification, resources, biosynthesis and bioactivities of natural steroid alkaloids reported from 1926 to October 2021.

This review will help the scientific community understand natural steroidal alkaloids overall and compactly. We comprehensively summarize 16 structural subtypes of steroidal alkaloids along with their bioactivities and toxicity. In addition, steroidal alkaloids (362–365, 381) whose names were not proposed by authors were presented only with numbers in the tables.

Basic skeletal classification

Steroidal alkaloids possess the basic steroidal skeleton with a nitrogen atom in rings or side chains incorporated as an integral part of the molecule [24]. In general, steroidal alkaloids can be classified into monomeric and dimeric on the basis of the carbon framework. Monomeric steroidal alkaloids, possessing a pregnane (C21), cyclopregnane (C24), cholestane (C27) and other carbon heterocyclic skeletons, were isolated from plants, amphibians and some marine sponges. Dimeric steroidal alkaloids, a class of bis-steroidal pyrazine alkaloids, were only found in marine organisms. Figure 1 lists the different types of natural steroidal alkaloids.

Fig. 1

Classification of steroidal alkaloids

Monomeric steroidal alkaloids

Pregnane alkaloids

The occurrence of 177 pregnane alkaloids (1–177), however, is not restricted to the Apocynaceae family, which is also found in Buxaceae, such as Sarcococca and Pachysandra.

Conanine type

Conanine type alkaloids are characteristic of an 18,20-epimino five-membered E ring, and most of them contain an amino or oxygen at C-3 (Fig. 2). Alkaloids (1–36) were isolated from various plants of the family Apocynaceae, such as Holarrhena, Funtumia, Malouetia, and Wrightia (Table 1).

Fig. 2

Structures of conanine type steroidal alkaloids 1–36

Table 1

Structures and sources of conanine type steroidal alkaloids 1–36

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
1	Conessine	R1 = R2 = R5 = CH3; R3 = R4 = H	Holarrhena antidysenterica	[25]
2	7α-Hydroxy-conessine	R1 = R2 = R5 = CH3; R3 = R4 = H; 7-α-OH	H. antidysenterica	[27]
3	Regholarrhenine D	R1 = R2 = CH3; R3 = R4 = H; R5 = OH	H. antidysenterica	[28]
4	Antidysentericine	R1 = R2 = CH3; R3 = R5 = H; R4 = O	H. antidysenterica	[29]
5	Isoconessimine	R1 = R5 = CH3; R2 = R3 = R4 = H	Funtumia elastica	[30]
6	Holarrhetine	R1 = R2 = R5 = CH3; R3 = β-(CH3)2C = CHCH2COO; R4 = H	F. elastica	[30]
7	Holarrhesine	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = R5 = CH3; R3 = β-(CH3)2C = CHCH2COO	F. elastica	[30]
8	Conessimin	R1 = R2 = CH3; R3 = R4 = R5 = H	Holarrhena antidysenterica	[31]
9	Conarrhimin	R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	H. antidysenterica	[31]
10	Conimin	R1 = CH3; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	H. antidysenterica	[31]
11	Mokluangin A	R1 = R3 = R5 = H; R2 = CH3; R4 = O	H. pubescens	[26]
12	Mokluangin C	R1 = R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = O	H. pubescens	[26]
13	N-Formylconessimine	R1 = R2 = CH3; R3 = R4 = H; R5 = CHO	H. antidysenterica	[32]
14	Holonamine	R1 = α-OH; R2 = H	H. antidysenterica	[27]
15	12α-Hydroxynorcona-N(18),1,4-trienin-3-one	R1 = H; R2 = α-OH	Funtumia africana	[33]
16	11α,l2α-Dihydroxynorcona-N(18),1,4-trienin-3-one	R1 = R2 = α-OH	F. africana	[33]
17	Conkurchine	R1 = β-NH2; R2 = H; △5,6	Holarrhena antidysenterica	[34]
18	Malouetafrine	R1 = O; R2 = H; △4,5	Malouetia brachyloba	[35]
19	Wrightiamine A	R1 = β-NH2; R2 = α-OAc	Wrightia javanica	[36]
20	Regholarrhenine A	R1 = α-OH; R2 = CH3; R3 = β-CH3	Holarrhena antidysenterica	[37]
21	Regholarrhenine B	R1 = α-OH; R2 = H; R3 = β-CH3	H. antidysenterica	[37]
22	Holadiene	R1 = H; R2 = R3 = CH3	H. pubescens	[38]
23	Kurchinidine	R1 = R2 = H; R3 = CH3	H. pubescens	[38]
24	Kurchilidine (I)	R1 = R2 = H; R3 = β-Et	H. antidysenterica	[39]
25	Kuchamide (II)	R1 = OH; R2 = H; R3 = O	H. antidysenterica	[39]
26	Holamide	R1 = H; R2 = CONHCH3; R3 = CH3	H. antidysenterica	[40]
27	Pubescinine	R1 = α-OAc; R2 = H; R3 = CH3; △17,20	H. antidysenterica	[40]
28	Regholarrhenine C	R1 = NHCH3; R2 = R3 = H	H. antidysenterica	[37]
29	Funtudienine	R1 = H; R2 = O; R3 = CH3	H. antidysenterica	[32]
30	Kurcholessine	R = β-OH	H. antidysenterica	[28]
31	Regholarrhenine E	R = α-OH	H. antidysenterica	[28]
32	Mokluangin B		H. pubescens	[26]
33	Isoconkuressine	R1 = R2 = H	H. antidysenterica	[32]
34	Conkuressine	R1 = CH3; R2 = H	H. antidysenterica	[32]
35	Mokluangin D		H. pubescens	[41]
36	Irehline		H. pubescens	[41]

Conessine (1) was the first and most common conanine type alkaloid isolated from the seeds of Holarrhena antidysenterica [25]. Rings A and B of the pregnane moiety were dehydrogenated to form a conjugated system comprising two double bonds in regholarrhenine C (28), funtudienine (29), mokluangin D (35). Compounds 14–16 and 20–27 have secondary and tertiary amino group of the nitrogen in the heterocyclic ring, respectively, but both of them lack the C-3 amino function and possess a 1,4-dien-3-one system in ring A. Mokluangin B (32) contains a novel structure with the amide carbonyl group instead of the methyl group at C-20, whose structure was elucidated by analysis of NMR and MS spectroscopic data [26].

Paravallarine type

Paravallarine type alkaloids bear a pregnane-(18 → 20)-lactone skeleton (Fig. 3) [42]. Currently, eight compounds (37–44) of this type have been found only in Apocynaceae family, including Kibatalia and Paravallaris (Table 2).

Fig. 3

Structures of paravallarine type steroidal alkaloids 37–44

Table 2

Structures and sources of paravallarine type steroidal alkaloids 37–44

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
37	20-Epi-kibataline		Paravallaris macrophylla	[43]
38	3-Epi-gitingensine	R1 = R2 = H	Kibatalia laurifolia	[42]
39	Paravallarine	R1 = CH3; R2 = H	K. laurifolia	[42]
40	7α-Hydroxyparavallarine	R1 = CH3; R2 = OH	K. laurifolia	[42]
41	Gitingensine	R = H	K. laurifolia	[42]
42	N-Methylgitingensine	R = CH3	K. laurifolia	[42]
43	N-Acetylgitingensine	R = Ac	K. laurifolia	[42]
44	Kibalaurifoline		K. laurifolia	[42]

The structure of 20-epi-kibataline (37) contains a rare configuration 20R, while the configuration 20S is proposed for all remaining compounds [43]. Compounds 38–40 differ from others possessing an opposite orientation at C-3. The structure of kibalaurifoline (44) was carefully established from 2D NMR analyses, in which the conjugated system of the two double bonds Δ4(5) and Δ6(7) was determined from the HMBC spectrum [42].

Pregnane type

Nearly all the reported pregnane type alkaloids, share the 5α-pregnane steroidal skeleton with varying functionalities such as an amino function at C-3 and C-20 that may be modified by methyl, benzoyl and aliphatic groups (Fig. 4). A total of 133 new alkaloids (45–177) were isolated from Sarcococca and Pachysandra of the Buxaceae family and Holarrhena of the Apocynaceae family (Table 3).

Fig. 4

Structures of pregnane type steroidal alkaloids 45–177

Table 3

Structures and sources of pregnane type steroidal alkaloids 45–177

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
45	Saracocinaene	R1 = H; R2 = α-N(CH3)2; R3 = Ac	Sarcococca saligna	[48]
46	Sarconidine	R1 = H; R2 = β-NHCH3; R3 = CH3	S. saligna	[49]
47	Salonine B	R1 = H; R2 = β-OCH3; R3 = CH3	S. saligna	[50]
48	Salignamine	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = β-OCH3	S. saligna	[51]
49	2-Hydroxysalignamine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = β-OCH3; R3 = CH3	S. saligna	[51]
50	N-[Formyl(methyl)amino]salonine B	R1 = H; R2 = β-OCH3; R3 = CHO	S. saligna	[51]
51	Wallichimine A	R1 = H; R2 = β-N(CH3)2; R3 = CH3	S. wallichii	[52]
52	Wallichimine B	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = β-N(CH3)2	S. wallichii	[52]
53	Sarcodine	R1 = R2 = CH3; R3 = R4 = R5 = R6 = H; R7 = Ac	S. saligna	[48]
54	Paxillarine A	R1 = Bz; R2 = R7 = CH3; R3 = β-OAc; R4 = R5 = H; R6 = β-OH	Pachysandra axillaris	[53]
55	Paxillarine B	R1 = Bz; R2 = R7 = CH3; R3 = β-OAc; R4 = R6 = H; R5 = β-OH	P. axillaris	[53]
56	Pachysamine B	R1 = Sen; R2 = R7 = CH3; R3 = R4 = R5 = R6 = H	P. procumbens	[46]
57	Pachysamine E	R1 = Sen; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = R6 = H; R7 = CH3	P. terminalis	[54]
58	(+)-(20S)-20-(Dimethylamino)-3α-(methylbenzoylamino)-11-methylene-5α-pregnane	R1 = Bz; R2 = R3 = R5 = R6 = H; R4 = CH2; R7 = CH3	P. procumbens	[55]
59	(+)-(20S)-20-(Dimethylamino)-3α-(methylbenzoylamino)-5α-pregn-12β-yl acetate	R1 = Bz; R2 = R3 = R4 = R6 = H; R5 = β-OAc; R7 = CH3	P. procumbens	[55]
60	(+)-(20S)-20-(Dimethylamino)-3α-(methylsenecioylamino)-5α-pregn-12β-ol	R1 = Sen; R2 = R3 = R4 = R6 = H; R5 = β-OH; R7 = CH3	P. procumbens	[55]
61	Hookerianine A	R1 = CO-Bn; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = R6 = H; R7 = CH3	Sarcococca hookeriana	[56]
62	Sarchookloide C	R1 = Tig; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = R6 = H; R7 = CH3	S. hookeriana	[57]
63	Pachyaximine A	R1 = R3 = R4 = H; R2 = OCH3; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna; P. procumbens	[46, 48]
64	Sarsalignone	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = NH-Tig; R3 = O; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[58]
65	Sarsaligenone	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = NH-Tig; R3 = O; R5 = R6 = CH3; △14,15	S. saligna	[58]
66	Epipachysamine-E-5-en-4-one	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = NH-Sen; R3 = O; R5 = R6 = CH3	S.brevifolia	[59]
67	Nb-Demethylepipachysamine-E-5-ene-4-one	R1 = R4 = R5 = H; R2 = NH-Sen; R3 = O; R6 = CH3	S. brevifolia	[59]
68	Salignarine B	R1 = β-OH; R2 = NH-Tig; R3 = R4 = H; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[44]
69	Salignarine C	R1 = β-OH; R2 = NH-Sen; R3 = R4 = H; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[44]
70	Iso-N-formylchonemorphin-5-ene	R1 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H; R2 = N(CH3)2; R6 = CHO	S. zeylanica	[60]
71	Alkaloid C	R1 = R3 = R4 = H; R2 = OCH3; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[50]
72	Salignarine F	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = NH-Tig; R3 = β-OH; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[51]
73	Saracosine	R1 = R3 = R4 = H; R2 = N(CH3)2; R5 = Ac; R6 = CHO	S. saligna	[51]
74	Sarcodinine	R1 = R3 = R4 = H; R2 = N(CH3)2; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[51]
75	5,14-Dehydro-Na-demethylsaracodine	R1 = R3 = R4 = H; R2 = NHCH3; R5 = Ac; R6 = CH3; △14,15	S. saligna	[61]
76	Holadysenterine	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = NH2; R4 = R5 = OH; R6 = Ac	Holarrhena antidysenterica	[62]
77	(20S)-20α-Cinnamoylamino-3β-dimethylamino-5-en-pregnane	R1 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H; R2 = N(CH3)2; R6 = COCH = CHph	Pachysandra terminalis	[63]
78	SarcovagineA	R1 = R4 = β-OH; R2 = Tig; R3 = H; R5 = R6 = CH3	Sarcococca vegans	[64]
79	Sarcovagine B	R1 = α-OH; R2 = Tig; R3 = H; R4 = β-OAc; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. vegans	[64]
80	Sarcovagine C	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = Tig; R4 = β-OAc; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. vegans; S. hookeriana	[64, 65]
81	N-Formylchonemorphine	R1 = R2 = R4 = H; R3 = CHO; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[58]
82	Vaganine A	R1 = R2 = H; R3 = Sen; R4 = β-OAc; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[58]
83	Sarcorine	R1 = R2 = R4 = H; R3 = Ac; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[49]
84	Na-Demethylsaracodine	R1 = R2 = R4 = H; R3 = R6 = CH3; R5 = Ac	S. saligna	[66]
85	Saligcinnamide	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = R5 = R6 = CH3; R3 = Cin	S. saligna	[67]
86	Na-Methyl epipachysamine D	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = R5 = R6 = CH3; R3 = Bz	S. saligna; S. hookeriana	[65, 67]
87	Epipachysamine D	R1 = R2 = R4 = H; R3 = Bz; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[67]
88	Salignenamide A	R1 = R2 = R4 = H; R3 = COCHC(CH3)CH(CH3)CH3; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna; S. hookeriana	[65, 68]
89	2,4-Diacetoxyepipachysamine D	R1 = β-OAc; R2 = H; R3 = Bz; R4 = β-OAc; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[68]
90	Iso-N-formylchonemorphine	R1 = R4 = R5 = H; R2 = R3 = CH3; R6 = CHO	S. brevifolia	[59]
91	Epipachysamine E	R1 = R3 = R4 = H; R2 = Sen; R5 = R6 = CH3	Pachysandra terminalis	[54]
92	11-Hydroxyepipachysamine E	R1 = R2 = R4 = H; R3 = Sen; R5 = R6 = CH3; 11-OH	Sarcococca brevifolia	[69]
93	Saligenamide C	R1 = β-OH; R2 = H; R3 = Tig; R4 = β-OAc; R5 = R6 = CH3; △14,15	S. saligna	[70]
94	Saligenamide F	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = CH3; R3 = COCHC(CH3)CH(CH3)CH3; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[70]
95	2β-Hydroxyepipachysamine D	R1 = β-OH; R2 = R4 = R5 = H; R3 = Bz; R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[70]
96	Axillarine C	R1 = β-OH; R2 = H; R3 = Bz; R4 = β-OAc; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[70]
97	Axillarine F	R1 = β-OH; R2 = H; R3 = Tig; R4 = β-OAc; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna	[70]
98	Salonine A	R1 = β-OH; R2 = H; R3 = Tig; R4 = β-OH; R5 = R6 = CH3; △14,15	S. saligna	[50]
99	Dictyophlebine	R1 = R2 = R4 = H; R3 = R5 = R6 = CH3	S. saligna; S. hookeriana	[51, 65]
100	Hookerianamine A	R1 = R2 = R4 = H; R3 = R5 = R6 = CH3; △14,15	S. hookeriana	[71]
101	Isosarcodine	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = R5 = R6 = CH3; R3 = Ac	S. saligna	[72]
102	Hookerianamide B	R1 = α-OH; R2 = H; R3 = Sen; R4 = β-OH; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. hookeriana	[71]
103	Hookerianamide C	R1 = β-OAc; R2 = R4 = H; R3 = Sen; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. hookeriana	[71]
104	Hookerianamide D	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = R5 = CH3; R3 = COCHC(CH3)CH(CH3)CH3; R6 = CHO	S. hookeriana	[73]
105	Hookerianamide E	R1 = β-OAc; R3 = R4 = H; R2 = Sen; R5 = R6 = CH3; △14,15	S. hookeriana	[73]
106	Hookerianamide G	R1 = H; R2 = R5 = R6 = CH3; R3 = Bz; R4 = β-OAc	S. hookeriana	[73]
107	Hookerianamide I	R1 = R4 = R5 = H; R2 = R6 = CH3; R3 = Bz	S. hookeriana	[74]
108	Chonemorphine	R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = H; R5 = R6 = CH3	S. hookeriana	[65]
109	N-Methypachysamine A	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = R3 = R5 = R6 = CH3	S. hookeriana	[65]
110	Pachysamine J	R1 = α-OH; R2 = R4 = H; R3 = Sen; R5 = R6 = CH3	Pachysandra axillaris	[75]
111	Pachysamine O	R1 = R2 = R4 = H; R3 = Cin; R5 = R6 = CH3	P. axillaris	[75]
112	Pachysamine P	R1 = R2 = H; R3 = COCH2C(CH3)C(CH3)CH3; R4 = β-OH; R5 = R6 = CH3	P. axillaris	[75]
113	(20S)-2α,4β-Bis(acetoxy)-20-(N,N-dimethylamino)-3β-tigloylamino-5α-pregnane	R1 = α-OAc; R2 = H; R3 = Tig; R4 = β-OAc; R5 = R6 = CH3	Sarcococca hookeriana	[76]
114	(20S)-20α-Cinnamoylamino-3β-dimethylamino-pregnane	R1 = R4 = R5 = H; R2 = R3 = CH3; R6 = COCH = CHph	Pachysandra terminalis	[63]
115	(20S)-(Bennzamido)-3β-(N,N-dimethyamino)-pregnane	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = R3 = R6 = CH3; R5 = Bz	Sarcococca. saligna	[77]
116	Sarcovagine D	R1 = Tig; R2 = O; R3 = R4 = H; R5 = CH3	S. vegans; S. hookeriana	[64, 65]
117	Sarcovagenine C	R1 = Tig; R2 = O;R3 = R4 = H; R5 = CH3; △16,17	S. vegans; S. hookeriana	[65, 78]
118	Axillaridine A	R1 = Bz; R2 = O; R3 = R4 = H; R5 = CH3	S. saligna; P. procumbens	[46, 69]
119	2,3-Dehydrosarsalignone	R1 = Tig; R2 = O; R3 = R4 = H; R5 = CH3; △5,6	S. saligna	[61]
120	14,15-Dehydrosarcovagine D	R1 = Tig; R2 = O; R3 = R4 = H; R5 = CH3; △14,15	S. saligna	[61]
121	Phulchowkiamide A	R1 = Tig; R2 = O; R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. hookeriana	[72]
122	Hookerianamide F	R1 = Tig; R2 = O; R3 = R4 = R5 = H; △14,15	S. hookeriana	[71]
123	Hookerianamide H	R1 = CHO; R2 = O; R3 = R4 = H; R5 = CH3	S. hookeriana	[73]
124	(+)-(20S)-3-(Benzoylamino)-20-(dimethylamino)-5α-pregn-2-en-4β-yl acetate	R1 = Bz; R2 = β-OAc; R3 = R4 = H; R5 = CH3	Pachysandra procumbens	[46]
125	Pachysamine L	R1 = Tig; R2 = β-OAc; R3 = R4 = H; R5 = CH3	P. axillaris	[75]
126	Pachysamine M	R1 = Sen; R2 = O; R3 = R4 = H; R5 = CH3	P. axillaris	[75]
127	Pachysamine N	R1 = Sen; R2 = O; R3 = H; R4 = β-OH; R5 = CH3	P. axillaris	[75]
128	Sarsaligenine A	R1 = Sen; R2 = O; R3 = R4 = H; R5 = CH3; △16,17	Sarcococca saligna	[79]
129	Sarsaligenine B	R1 = Sen; R2 = O; R3 = α-OH; R4 = H; R5 = CH3	S. saligna	[79]
130	Sarcovagenines A	R1 = R3 = β-OH; R2 = Tig; R4 = CH3	S. vegans	[78]
131	Sarcovagenines B	R1 = α-OH; R2 = Tig; R3 = β-OAc; R4 = CH3	S. vegans	[78]
132	Salignarine D	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = Sen; R4 = CH3	S. saligna	[44]
133	(−)-Vaganine D	R1 = H; R2 = Sen; R3 = β-OAc; R4 = CH3	S. coriacea	[80]
134	(+)-Nepapakistamine A	R1 = R3 = β-OAc; R2 = Tig; R4 = H	S. coriacea	[80]
135	5,6-Dihydrosarconidine	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = R4 = CH3	S. saligna	[51]
136	16-Dehydrosarcorine	R1 = R3 = H; R3 = Ac; R4 = CH3	S. saligna	[61]
137	Hookerianamide A	R1 = R3 = β-OH; R2 = Sen; R4 = CH3	S..hookeriana	[72]
138	Saligenamide B	R1 = β-OH; R2 = Sen; △14,15	S. saligna	[67]
139	Salignarine E	R1 = H; R2 = Tig	S. saligna	[44]
140	Saligenamide D	R1 = α-OH; R2 = Tig; △16,17	S. saligna	[69]
141	2-Hydroxysalignarine E	R1 = β-OH; R2 = Tig	S. saligna	[51]
142	Salonine C	R1 = H; R2 = Tig; △14,15	S. saligna	[51]
143	E-salignone		S. saligna	[65]
144	Z-salignone		S. saligna	[65]
145	Holamine	R1 = α-NH2; R2 = R3 = R4 = H; R5 = R6 = α-H; △5,6	Holarrhena curtisii	[81]
146	3α-Amino-14β-hydroxypregnan-20-one	R1 = α-NH2; R2 = R3 = R4 = R6 = H; R5 = β-OH	H. curtisii	[81]
147	15α-Hydroxyholamine	R1 = α-NH2; R2 = R3 = R4 = H; R5 = α-H; R6 = α-OH; △5,6	H. curtisii	[81]
148	Pachysanone	R1 = O; R2 = H; R3 = α-OCOCH2C(CH3)C(CH3)CH3; R4 = β-OAc; R5 = R6 = H	Pachysandra axillaris	[45]
149	Pachysanonin	R1 = β-N(CH3)2; R2 = H; R3 = α-OCOCH2C(CH3)C(CH3)CH3; R4 = β-OAc; R5 = R6 = H	P. axillaris	[45]
150	Pachysamine Q	R1 = β-N(CH3)2; R2 = R4 = β-OAc; R3 = α-OCO-Bn; R5 = R6 = H	P. axillaris	[75]
151	Pachysamine R	R1 = β-N(CH3)2; R2 = R4 = β-OAc; R3 = α-OCOCH2C(CH3)C(CH3)CH3; R5 = R6 = H	P. axillaris	[75]
152	Terminamine F	R1 = α-NCH3-Sen; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = R6 = H	P. terminalis	[82]
153	Terminamine G	R1 = α-NCH3-Bz; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = R6 = H	P. terminalis	[82]
154	Funtumine	R1 = α-NH2; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = R6 = H	Holarrhena floribunda	[83]
155	(+)-(20S)-20-(Dimethylamino)-3-(3′α-isopropyl)-lactam-5α-pregn-2-en-4-one	R1 = R3 = R4 = H; R2 = O; △1,2	Pachysandra procumbens	[46]
156	(+)-(20S)-20-(Dimethylamino)-16α-hydroxy-3-(3′α-isopropyl)-lactam-5α-pregn-2-en-4-one	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = O; R4 = α-OH; △1,2	P. procumbens	[46]
157	Pachystermine A	R1 = R3 = R4 = H; R2 = O	P. terminalis	[54]
158	(+)-(20S)-20-(Dimethylamino)-16α-hydroxy-3β-(3′α-isopropyl)-lactam-5α-pregn-4-one	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = O; R4 = α-OH	P. procumbens	[55]
159	Terminamine A	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = O; R4 = β-OH	P. terminalis	[82]
160	Terminamine B	R1 = β-OAc; R2 = R4 = β-OH; R3 = α-OAc	P. terminalis	[82]
161	Terminamine C	R1 = β-OAc; R2 = R4 = β-OH; R3 = val	P. terminalis	[82]
162	Pachystermine B	R1 = R3 = R4 = H; R2 = β-OH	P. terminalis	[82]
163	Terminamine D	R = OH	P. terminalis	[82]
164	Terminamine E	R = H	P. terminalis	[82]
165	(+)-(20S)-2α-Hydroxy-20-(dimethylamino)-3β-phthalimido-5α-pregnan-4β-yl acetate		P. procumbens	[46]
166	Spiropachysine		P. procumbens	[46]
167	Salignarine A		Sarcococca saligna	[44]
168	Epoxynepapakistamin A	R1 = R3 = β-OAc; R2 = β-NH-Tig; R4 = H	S. coriacea	[47]
169	Epoxysarcovagenine D	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = β-NH-Tig; R3 = O; △2,3	S. coriacea	[47]
170	(S)-20-(N,N-Dimethylamino)-16α,17α-epoxy-3β-methoxy-pregn-5-ene	R1 = R3 = R4 = H; R2 = β-OCH3; △5,6	S. hookeriana	[76]
171	Hookerianine B	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = α-NH-Bz; R4 = CH3	S. hookeriana	[56]
172	N-methylfuntumafrine		S. coriacea	[47]
173	Pachysamines K	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = α-OH; R3 = Bz; R5 = α-OH	Pachysandra axillaris	[75]
174	Archosokloide A	R1 = R5 = H; R2 = β-OH; R3 = Tig; R4 = β-OH	Sarcococca hookeriana	[57]
175	Sarchookloide B	R1 = R4 = R5 = H; R2 = β-OH; R3 = Tig	S. hookeriana	[57]
176	4-Dehydroxyepisarcovagine A	R1 = β-OH; R2 = R4 = R5 = H; R3 = Tig; △14,15	S. pruniformis	[84]
177	(20S)-(Bennzamido)-pregnane-3-one		S. saligna	[77]

For alkaloids with nitrogen substituents at C-3, only 53–62 and 172–176 bear 3α substituents, whereas most compounds possess the 3β configuration. All of them except 143–154 contain nitrogen substituents at C-20, which is a common feature of pregnane type alkaloids. Salignarine A (167) has a novel structure with an epoxide functionality at C-5–C-6 [44]. Two compounds, pachysanone (148) and pachysanonin (149) bear a 3,4-dimethylpent-3-enoyloxy substituent at C-11, a rare functional group in natural products [45]. Compounds 155–164, bear a (3′sopropyl)-β-lactam ring at the C-3 position, whereas compound 165 bears a phthalimido moiety at the same position [46]. Spiropachysine (166) possesses a five membered-ring spiro-lactam and a disubstituted benzene ring at C-3 [46]. Compounds 168–171 display a structural modification that has not been reported from this genus, viz. the epoxy ring at C-16/C-17. N-methylfuntumafrine (172) shows a novel structure with an acetyl group at C-17 [47].

Cyclopregnane alkaloids

The Buxus genus of the Buxaceae family is a rich source of cyclopregnane alkaloids, and 116 cyclopregnane alkaloids (178–293) have been reported from B. sempervirens, B. longifolia, B. hildebrandtii, B. bodinieri, B. hyrcana, B. microphylla, B. papillosa, B. wallichiana, B. rugulosa, B. natalensis, and B. macowanii.

Cyclopregnane alkaloids, also known as triterpenoid alkaloids, possess a unique pregnane type structure with C-4 methyl groups, a 9β,10β-cycloartenol system, and a degraded C-20 side chain. All alkaloids possess a nitrogen function at C-3 and/or C-20, which may be unmethylated, partially methylated, or fully methylated. Structurally, the majority of these alkaloids contain either a 9β,19-cyclo-14α-methylpregnane type or a 9(10 → 19)abeo-14α-methylpregnane type, having a characteristic substituent pattern at C-4.

9β,19-Cyclo-14α-methylpregnane type

Out of the 116 cyclopregnane alkaloids, 50 (178–227) belong to this type, which are characteristic of the genus Buxus (Table 4). This type of compound is characterized by a pentacyclic 4,4,14-trimethyl-9,19-cyclopregnane skeleton (Fig. 5).

Table 4

Structures and sources of 9β,19-Cyclo-14α-methylpregnane type steroidal alkaloids 178–227

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
178	Cyclobuxine	R1 = H; R2 = α-OH	Buxus sempervirens	[85]
179	Cyclobuxamidine	R1 = Ac; R2 = H	B. longifolia	[86]
180	Cyclobuxoviridine	R1 = O; R2 = R4 = CH3; R3 = H; △1,2	B. hildebrandtii	[91]
181	Buxbodine A	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = R4 = CH3	B. bodinieri	[87]
182	Buxbodine B	R1 = O; R2 = R4 = CH3; R3 = β-OH; △1,2	B. bodinieri	[87]
183	Nb-Demethylcyclomikurane	R1 = O; R2 = CH3; R3 = R4 = H	B. sempervirens	[92]
184	Cyclimikuranine	R1 = O; R2 = R4 = CH3; R3 = H	B. sempervirens	[92]
185	Nb-Demethylcyclobuxoviricine	R1 = O; R2 = R4 = CH3; R3 = α-OH; △1,2	B. hyrcana	[93]
186	Buxmicrophylline K	R1 = β-OH; R2 = CH3; R3 = α-OH; R4 = H	B. microphylla	[88]
187	N-Demethylcyclomikuranine	R1 = O; R2 = CH3; R3 = α-OH; R4 = H	B. microphylla	[88]
188	31-Demethylcyclobuxoviridine	R1 = O; R2 = H; R3 = H; R4 = CH3; △1,2	B. hyrcana	[94]
189	Cyclomicrobuxamine	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = CH2	B. hildebrandtii	[91]
190	Cyclomicrobuxeine	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = CH2; △16,17	B. sempervirens	[95]
191	30-Hydroxycyclomicobuxene	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = CH2OH; △4,5	B. sempervirens	[96]
192	Buxippine K	R1 = CH3; R2 = CH2; R3 = α-OH	B. hyrcana	[93]
193	Cyclorolfeine		B. hildebrandtii	[91]
194	Cyclobuxomicreinine		B. longifolia	[97]
195	Isodihydrocyclomicrophylline A	R1 = R2 = R5 = R6 = CH3; R3 = CH2OH; R4 = α -OH	B. sempervirens	[98]
196	Buxasamarine	R1 = R2 = R3 = CH3; R4 = α-OH; R5 = H; R6 = CH3; △1,2	B. longifolia	[86]
197	Buxmicrophylline C	R1 = H; R2 = Isobu; R3 = CH2OH; R4 = α-OH; R5 = R6 = CH3; △6,7	B. microphylla	[99]
198	Buxbodine D	R1 = R2 = R3 = CH3; R4 = R5 = H; R6 = Ac; △6,7	B. bodinieri	[87]
199	Buxbodine E	R1 = R2 = R3 = CH3; R4 = R5 = R6 = H; △6,7	B. bodinieri	[87]
200	Buxakashmiramine	R1 = Syr; R2 = R5 = R6 = CH3; R3 = CH2OH; R4 = H	B. papillosa	[100]
201	Cycloprotobuxine C	R1 = R2 = R3 = R5 = R6 = CH3; R4 = H; △6,7	B. papillosa	[100]
202	Cyclovirobuxeine A	R1 = R2 = R3 = R5 = R6 = CH3; R4 = α-OH; △6,7	B. papillosa	[100]
203	Cyclovirobuxine D	R1 = R5 = H; R2 = R3 = R6 = CH3; R4 = α-OH	B. wallichiana	[101]
204	Hyrcamine	R1 = H R2 = Tig; R3 = CH2OH; R4 = α -OAc; R5 = R6 = CH3	B. hyrcana	[93]
205	Buxidine	R1 = H R2 = Bz; R3 = CH2OH; R4 = α-OH; R5 = R6 = CH3; △6,7	B. hyrcana	[93]
206	Buxandrine	R1 = H R2 = Bz; R3 = CH2OH; R4 = α -OAc; R5 = R6 = CH3; △6,7	B. hyrcana	[93]
207	Buxrugulosamine	R1 = H; R2 = Ac; R3 = CH3; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = CH3	B.rugulosa	[102]
208	Buxmicrophylline E	R1 = H; R2 = Bz; R3 = CH2OH; R4 = O-Bz; R5 = R6 = CH3	B. microphylla	[103]
209	Buxmicrophylline F	R1 = H; R2 = Isobu; R3 = CH2OH; R4 = O-Bz; R5 = R6 = CH3; △6,7	B. microphylla	[103]
210	Buxmicrophylline G	R1 = H; R2 = Isofer; R3 = CH2OH; R4 = α -OH; R5 = R6 = CH3	B. microphylla	[103]
211	Buxmicrophylline H	R1 = H; R2 = Syr; R3 = CH2OH; R4 = α -OH; R5 = R6 = CH3	B. microphylla	[103]
212	Cyclonataminol	R1 = R2 = R3 = R5 = R6 = CH3; R4 = α-OH; 2-α-OH; △6,7	B. natalensis	[104]
213	trans-Cyclosuffrobuxinine		B. longifolia	[86]
214	Buxozine C		B. papillosa	[90]
215	Sempervirone		B. papillosa	[89]
216	Buxmicrophylline D	R1 = R2 = CH3; R3 = R4 = H	B. microphylla	[99]
217	Buxmicrophylline I	R1 = R2 = R3 = H; R4 = Syr	B. microphylla	[103]
218	Buxmicrophylline J	R1 = H; R2 = R3 = CH3; R4 = Bz	B. microphylla	[88]
219	Buxmicrophylline P	R1 = R2 = H; R3 = β-CH3; R4 = H	B. microphylla	[105]
220	Buxmicrophylline Q	R1 = R2 = H; R3 = β-CH3; R4 = Syr	B. microphylla	[105]
221	Buxmicrophylline R	R1 = R2 = H; R3 = β-CH3; R4 = Van	B. microphylla	[105]
222	Buxmicrophylline B	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = CH3	B. microphylla	[99]
223	E-cyclobuxaphylamine	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = CH3; △7,8	B. sempervirens	[95]
224	Z-cyclobuxaphylamine	R1 = R2 = H; R3 = CH3; △7,8	B. sempervirens	[95]
225	Buxbodine C	R1 = R2 = CH3; R3 = H; △6,7	B. bodinieri	[87]
226	Cyclobuxaphylline	R1 = R2 = CH3; R3 = H	B. sempervirens	[92]
227	17-Oxocycloprotobuxine		B. sempervirens	[106]

Fig. 5

Structures of 9β,19-cyclo-14α-methylpregnane type steroidal alkaloids 178–227

Cyclobuxine D (178) was the first steroidal alkaloid from Buxus bearing a C-4 methylene substituent [85]. Later, cyclobuxamidine (179) and trans-cyclosuffrobuxinine (213) of this type were isolated from B. longifolia [86]. Buxbodine A (181) has a unique structure due to the lack of a keto or an amino functionality at the C-3 position [87]. Typically, all alkaloids of this type have a C-3 amino or carbonyl group, except for buxmicrophylline K (186), which has a hydroxyl group substituted at C-3 [88]. In compounds trans-cyclosuffrobuxinine (213) and sempervirone (215), the methylamino group at C-20 is eliminated and the secondary alcohol at C-16 is oxidized [86, 89]. Buxozine C (214) with a tetrahydro-oxazine ring joining the C-16α and the C-20 nitrogen has been isolated from B. papillosa. The mass spectra of compound 214 exhibit the ions at m/z 127 and 113 due to cleavage of ring D, and these ions serve as diagnostic features to determine the presence of a tetrahydro-oxazine ring in ring D [90].

9(10 → 19)Abeo-14α-methylpregnane alkaloids

This type contains a tetracyclic system in which 9,19 bond fission has occurred to give seven-membered ring B (Fig. 6). Sixty-six alkaloids (228–293) were isolated from the genus Buxus (Table 5).

Fig. 6

Structures of 9(10 → 19)abeo-14α-methylpregnane type steroidal alkaloids 228–293

Table 5

Structures and sources of 9(10 → 19)abeo-14α-methylpregnane type steroidal alkaloids 228–293

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
228	Buxamine A	R1 = N(CH3)2; R2 = R4 = R5 = CH3; R3 = H	Buxus hildebrandtii; B. natalensis	[91, 104]
229	Buxamine C	R1 = NHCH3; R2 = R4 = R5 = CH3; R3 = H	B. hildebrandtii	[91]
230	30-O-benzoyl-16-deoxybuxidienine C	R1 = H; R2 = CH2O-Bz; R3 = H; R4 = R5 = CH3	B. hildebrandtii	[91]
231	30-Hydroxybuxamine A	R1 = R4 = R5 = CH3; R2 = CH2OH; R3 = H	B.hildebrandtii	[91]
232	30-Norbuxamine A	R1 = R4 = R5 = CH3; R2 = R3 = H	B.hildebrandtii	[91]
233	N-benzoyl-O-acetylbuxalongifoline	R1 = NH-Bz; R2 = COH; R3 = α-OH; R4 = R5 = CH3	B. longifolia	[86]
234	16α-Acetoxy-buxabenzamidienine	R1 = NH-Bz; R2 = R4 = R5 = CH3; R3 = α-OAc	B. longifolia	[86]
235	Buxaminol C	R1 = NHCH3; R2 = R4 = R5 = CH3; R3 = α-OH	B. sempervirens	[95]
236	Papilamine	R1 = NHCH3; R2 = R5 = CH3; R3 = R4 = H	B. sempervirens	[95]
237	16α-Hydro-xypapillamidine	R1 = NH-Ac; R2 = R4 = R5 = CH3; R3 = α-OH	B. papillosa	[109]
238	(+)-Benzoylbuxidienine	R1 = NH-Bz; R2 = R4 = R5 = CH3; R3 = α-OH	B. hyrcana	[110]
239	Buxamine F	R1 = NH2; R2 = R4 = R5 = CH3; R3 = H	B. sempervirens	[106]
240	N20-Formylbuxaminol E	R1 = N(CH3)2; R2 = CH3; R3 = α-OH; R4 = H; R5 = COH	B. sempervirens	[111]
241	O16-syringylbuxaminol E	R1 = N(CH3)2; R2 = CH3; R3 = α-O-Syr; R4 = R5 = H	B. sempervirens	[111]
242	N20-acetylbuxamine G	R1 = NHCH3; R2 = CH3; R3 = H; R4 = H; R5 = Ac	B. sempervirens	[111]
243	N20-acetylbuxamine E	R1 = N(CH3)2; R2 = CH3; R3 = H; R4 = H; R5 = Ac	B. sempervirens	[111]
244	Buxakarachiamine	R1 = NH-COCH(OH)CH(CH3)2; R2 = CH2OH; R3 = H; R4 = R5 = CH3	B. papillosa	[100]
245	Buxahejramine	R1 = NH-COCH(OH)CH(CH3)CH2CH; R2 = CH2OH; R3 = H; R4 = R5 = CH3	B. papillosa	[100]
246	31-Demethylbuxaminol A	R1 = N(CH3)2; R2 = H; R3 = α-OH; R4 = R5 = CH3	B. natalensis	[104]
247	Buxaminol A	R1 = N(CH3)2; R2 = R4 = R5 = CH3; R3 = α-OH	B. natalensis	[104]
248	Moenjodarmine	R1 = CH3; R2 = R3 = H; R4 = N(CH3)2	B. hildebrandtii; B. hyrcana	[91, 112]
249	Nb-Demethylharapamine	R1 = CH3; R2 = R3 = H; R4 = NH2	B. papillosa	[113]
250	Homomoenjodaramine	R1 = R2 = CH3; R3 = H; R4 = N(CH3)2	B. hyrcana	[112]
251	Buxhyrcamine	R1 = R2 = R3 = H; R4 = N(CH3) 2	B. hyrcana	[94]
252	Macowanioxazine	R1 = CH3; R2 = H; R3 = α-OH; R4 = N(CH3) 2	B. macowanii	[114]
253	16α-Hydroxymacowanitriene	R1 = CH3; R2 = H; R3 = α-OH; R4 = N(CH3) 2; △1,2	B. macowanii	[114]
254	Macowanitriene	R1 = CH3; R2 = R3 = H; R4 = N(CH3) 2; △1,2	B. macowanii	[114]
255	Papillotrienine	R1 = β-NHCH3; R2 = R3 = CH3	B. papillosa	[113]
256	Nb-Demethylpapilliotrienine	R1 = β-NHCH3; R2 = CH3; R3 = H	B. papillosa	[113]
257	Hyrcatrienine	R1 = β-NH-Bz; R2 = R3 = CH3	B. hyrcana	[93]
258	31-Hydroxybuxatrienone	R1 = O; R2 = CH2OH; R3 = CH3	B. macowanii	[114]
259	O2-Buxafuranamine	R1 = H; R2 = H	B. hildebrandtii	[115]
260	6-Hydroxy-O2-buxafuranamine	R1 = OH; R2 = H	B. hildebrandtii	[115]
261	O10-Buxafurana-mine	R1 = Bz; R2 = OH; R3 = R4 = H	B. hildebrandtii	[115]
262	O10-Natafuranamine	R1 = Bz; R2 = OH; R3 = α-OH; R4 = H	B. natalensis	[104]
263	Buxusemine B	R1 = Bz; R2 = OH; R3 = α-OH; R4 = O	B. sempervirens	[108]
264	Buxusemine C	R1 = Bz; R2 = R3 = R4 = H	B. sempervirens	[108]
265	(−)-16-Hydroxybuxaminone	R1 = CH3; R2 = α-OH; △10,19	B. sempervirens	[97]
266	Semperviraminone	R1 = CH3; R2 = H; △1,10; △16,17	B. sempervirens	[95]
267	Na-Demethylsemperviraminone	R1 = R2 = H; △1,10; △16,17	B. sempervirens	[95]
268	Buxalongifolamidine	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = NH-Bz; R3 = CH2OH; R5 = α-OH; R6 = α-OAc; △1,2; △9,11	B. longifolia	[107]
269	Semperviraminol	R1 = α-OH; R2 = NH-Bz; R3 = CH3; R4 = β-OAc; R5 = /; R6 = H; △1,10	B. sempervirens; B. papillosa	[100, 106]
270	N-Benzoylbuxahyrcanine	R1 = R4 = R6 = H; R2 = NH-Bz; R5 = β-OH; R3 = CH3; △9,11	B. hyrcana	[116]
271	N-Tigloylbuxahyrcanine	R1 = R4 = R6 = H; R2 = NH-Tig; R3 = CH3; R5 = β-OH; △9,11	B. hyrcana	[116]
272	N-Isobutyroyl-buxahyrcanine	R1 = R4 = R6 = H; R2 = Isobu; R3 = CH3; R5 = β-OH; △9,11	B. hyrcana	[116]
273	Hyrcanone	R1 = R4 = R6 = H; R2 = NH-Bz; R3 = CH3; R5 = /; 11-O; △1,10	B. hyrcana	[93]
274	2α,16α,31-Triacetyl-9,11-dihydrobuxiran	R1 = R6 = α-OAc; R2 = NH-Bz; R3 = CH2 OAc; R4 = H; R5 = /; △1,10	B. hyrcana	[117]
275	Macowamine	R1 = R4 = R5 = R6 = H; R2 = NCH3-Van; R3 = CH2OH; △9,11	B. macowanii	[114]
276	16α-Hydroxy-Na-benzoylbuxadine	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = NH-Bz; R3 = CH3; R5 = α-OH; R6 = OH	B. sempervirens	[95]
277	Nb-Dimethylbuxupapine	R1 = R4 = R5 = H; R2 = N(CH3)2; R3 = R6 = CH3	B. papillosa	[109]
278	(+)-16α,31-Diacetylbuxadine	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = NH-Bz; R3 = CH2OAc; R5 = α-OAc; R6 = CH3	B. sempervirens	[92]
279	Hyrcanol	R1 = β-OH; R2 = NH-Bz; R3 = R6 = CH3; R4 = α-OAc; R5 = H	B. hyrcana	[93]
280	Buxabenzacinine	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = NH-Bz; R4 = CH2OAc; R5 = α-OH; R6 = CH3	B. hyrcana	[93]
281	2α,16α,31-Triacetylbuxiran	R1 = α-OAc; R2 = NH-Bz; R3 = H; R4 = CH2OAc; R5 = α-OAc; R6 = CH3	B. hyrcana	[117]
282	Cyclovirobuxeine F	R1 = R2 = H	B. longifolia	[86]
283	(+)-O6-Buxafurandiene	R1 = α-OH; R2 = β-OH	B. hyrcana	[110]
284	(+)-7-deoxy-O6-Buxafurandiene	R1 = α-OH; R2 = β-H	B. hyrcana	[110]
285	2α,16α-Diacetoxy-9β,11b-epoxybuxamidine	R1 = OAc; R2 = Bz; R3 = H; R4 = α-OAc	B. papillosa	[89]
286	Buxapapillinine	R1 = OAc; R2 = Bz; R3 = α-OAc; R4 = H	B. sempervirens; B. hyrcana	[106, 110]
287	Buxusemine D	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = Bz; R3 = α-OAc	B. sempervirens	[108]
288	Papillozine C		B. papillosa	[89]
289	Sempervirooxazolidine		B. sempervirens	[96]
290	Hyrcanine		B. hyrcana	[112]
291	Buxaquamarine		B. hyrcana	[110]
292	O2-Natafuranamine		B. natalensis	[104]
293	17-Oxo-3-benzoylbuxadine		B. hyrcana	[94]

Alkaloids 248–254 and 290–291 are members of the class having a tetrahydro-oxazine moiety incorporated in ring A, while in compound 288 an oxazine ring is attached to ring D [89]. The presence of this ring can be easily recognized by the 1H NMR spectrum exhibiting the presence of two pairs of AB doublets at δ 3.20–4.50 [91]. Compounds 255–258 belong to a unique class having a conjugated triene system at △1,2, △10,19 and △9,11. Compounds 259–264, 282–284 and 292 belong to the rarely occurring class having an additional tetrahydrofuran ring incorporated in their structures through the ether linkage between C-10, C-2, or C-10 and C-23. Buxalongifolamidine (268) and 270–272 containing a hydroxyl group at C-10 may support the plausible biosynthesis of the ether linkage in these alkaloids [107]. Compounds 285–287 and 292 are rare cyclopregnane alkaloids featuring an epoxy motif [108]. Sempervirooxazolidine (289) also represents a novel structure having an oxazolidine moiety incorporated in its structure at C-2 and C-3 [96]. The compound 17-Oxo-3-benzoylbuxadine (293) having a carbonyl group at C-17 has been isolated from B. hyrcana [94].

Cholestane alkaloids

Based on the carbon framework, C27 alkaloids can be divided into two types: C-nor-D-homosteroidal alkaloids and cholestane alkaloids. The former, usually referred to as Veratrum steroidal alkaloids, characterised by a five-membered C-ring and six-membered D-ring system, can be further divided into cevanine, veratramine, and jervine types. The latter, usually named Solanum steroidal alkaloids, containing the common ABCD steroid skeleton, generally occurring as glycosides, can be grouped into spirosolane, solanidine and verazine types.

A total of 310 new members (294–603) were derived mainly from the genus Solanum in the Solanaceae family, and the genera Veratrum and Fritillaria in Liliaceae family.

Cevanine type

Members of the cevanine type are characterized by the hexacyclic benzo [7, 8] fluoreno[2,1-β]quinolizine nucleus (Fig. 7) [15]. This type is the largest representative group of C-nor-D-homosteroidal alkaloids, and currently comprises 91 new members (294–384) from Veratrum and Fritillaria genera in the Liliaceae family (Table 6).

Fig. 7

Structures of cevanine type steroidal alkaloids 294–384

Table 6

Structures and sources of cevanine type steroidal alkaloids 294–384

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
294	Veratrenone		Veratrum album	[118]
295	Shinonomenine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = R4 = H; R3 = CH3	V. grandiflorum	[127]
296	Veraflorizine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = H; R3 = OH; R4 = CH3	V. grandiflorum	[127]
297	Fritillarizine	R1 = α-OH; R2 = H; R3 = OH; R4 = CH3	Fritillaria verticillata	[128]
298	Veramarine-3-yl formate	R1 = β-OCOH; R2 = β-OH; R3 = OH; R4 = CH3	Veratrum nigrum	[129]
299	Baimonidine:	R1 = α-OH; R2 = β-OH; R3 = OH; R4 = CH3; R5 = H; R6 = β-CH3	Fritillaria verticillata	[130]
300	Isoverticine	R1 = R2 = β-OH; R3 = OH; R4 = CH3; R5 = H; R6 = β-CH3	F. verticillata	[130]
301	Isobaimonidine	R1 = R2 = α-OH; R3 = OH; R4 = CH3; R5 = H; R6 = β-CH3	F. verticillata	[119]
302	3-β-d-Petilinineglucoside	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = α-OH; R3 = H; R4 = CH3; R5 = H; R6 = α-CH3	Fritillaria ussuriensis	[131]
303	Ebeiedinone	R1 = β-OH; R2 = O; R3 = H; R4 = CH3; R5 = H; R6 = β-CH3	F. ebeiensis	[132]
304	Delafrine	R1 = R2 = β-OH; R3 = CH3; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = β-CH3	F. delavayi	[133]
305	Delafrinone	R1 = β-OH; R2 = O; R3 = CH3; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = β-CH3	F. delavayi	[133]
306	Zhebeinine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = α-OH; R3 = OH; R4 = CH3; R5 = H; R6 = α-CH3	F. thunbergii	[134]
307	Puqiedinone	R1 = β-OH; R2 = O; R3 = H; R4 = CH3; R5 = H; R6 = α-CH3	F. puqiensis	[135]
308	Zhebeinone	R1 = β-OH; R2 = O; R3 = OH; R4 = CH3; R5 = H; R6 = α-CH3	F. thunbergii	[136]
309	Dongbeinine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = O; R3 = CH3; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = β-CH3	F. thunbergii	[137]
310	Dongbeirine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = O; R3 = CH3; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = α-CH3	F. thunbergii	[137]
311	Ebeiedine	R1 = R2 = β-OH; R3 = H; R4 = CH3; R5 = H; R6 = β-CH3	F. ebeiensis	[138]
312	Impericine	R1 = R2 = β-OH; R3 = CH3; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = β-CH3; △23,24	F. imperialis	[139]
313	Forticine	R1 = R2 = β-OH; R3 = CH3; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = β-CH3	F. imperialis	[139]
314	Lichuanine	R1 = R2 = β-OH; R3 = CH3; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = α-CH3	F. lichuanensis	[140]
315	Puqiedine	R1 = R2 = β-OH; R3 = H; R4 = CH3; R5 = H; R6 = α-CH3	F. puqiensis	[141]
316	3α-Puqiedin-7-ol	R1 = R3 = α-OH; R2 = β-OH; R4 = H; R5 = H; R6 = β-CH3	F. puqiensis	[141]
317	Yibeinone F	R1 = O-β-d-Glc; R2 = α-OH; R3 = H; R4 = CH3; R5 = α-OH; R6 = β-CH3	F. pallidiflora	[142]
318	Verticine N-oxide	R1 = α-OH; R2 = OH; R3 = CH3	F. thunbergii	[143]
319	Verticinone N-oxide	R1 = O; R2 = OH; R3 = CH3	F. thunbergii	[143]
320	Isoverticine-β-N-oxide	R1 = β-OH; R2 = OH; R3 = CH3	F. wabuensia	[144]
321	Lichuanisinine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = CH3; R3 = H	F. lichuanensis	[140]
322	Pingbeimine A	R1 = α-OH; R2 = H	F. ussuriensis	[145]
323	Pingbeimine B	R1 = α-OH; R2 = OH	F. ussuriensis	[146]
324	Pingbeimine C	R1 = O; R2 = H	F. ussuriensis	[147]
325	Delavine	R1 = R2 = β-OH; R3 = H; R4 = CH3	F. delavayi	[148]
326	Hupeheninoside	R1 = β-d-Glc; R2 = β-OH; R3 = H; R4 = CH3	F. hupehensis	[149]
327	Delavinone	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = O; R4 = CH3	F. delavayi	[148]
328	Hupehenirine	R1 = O; R2 = β-OH; R3 = H; R4 = CH3	F. hupehensis	[150]
329	Yibeinoside A	R1 = O-β-d-Glc; R2 = O; R3 = H; R4 = CH3	F. pallidiflora	[151]
330	Hupehemonoside	R1 = β-d-Glc; R2 = O; R3 = OH; R4 = CH3	F. delavayi	[152]
331	Delavine-3-O-β-d-Glucopyranoside	R1 = O-β-d-Glc; R2 = β-OH; R3 = H; R4 = CH3	F. persica	[153]
332	Yubeinine	R1 = α-OH; R2 = O; R3 = OH; R4 = CH3	F. yuminensis	[154]
333	Yubeiside	R1 = O; R2 = β-O-β-d-Glc; R3 = R4 = H	F. yuminensis	[154]
334	Hupeheninate	R1 = Ac; R2 = β-OH; R3 = H; R4 = CH3	F. delavayi	[155]
335	Imperialine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = O; R3 = OH; R4 = CH3	F. pallidiflora	[156]
336	Chuanbeinone	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = O; R4 = CH3; R5 = β-CH3; R6 = β-H	F. delavayi	[157]
337	Hareperminside	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = β-OH; R3 = H; R4 = CH3; R5 = α-CH3; R6 = β-H	F. karelinii	[158]
338	Tortifoline	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = β-OH; R3 = CH3; R5 = β-CH3; R6 = β-H	F. tortifolia	[159]
339	Siechuansine	R1 = H; R2 = α-OH; R3 = OH; R4 = CH3; R5 = α-CH3; R6 = β-H	F. siechuanica	[160]
340	Songbeinone	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = O; R3 = CH3; R5 = β-CH3; R6 = β-H	F. unibracteata	[161]
341	Yibeinoside B	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = O; R3 = H; R4 = CH3; R5 = β-CH3; R6 = β-H	F. pallidiflora	[151]
342	Persicanidine B/Harepermine	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = β-OH; R4 = CH3; R5 = α-CH3; R6 = β-H	F. karelinii; F. persica	[158, 162]
343	Yibeinone D	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = O; R3 = CH3; R4 = OH; R5 = β-CH3; R6 = α-H	F. pallidiflora	[156]
344	Wanpeinine A	R1 = α-OH; R2 = OH; R3 = CH3; R4 = β-CH3; R5 = α-H; R6 = R7 = β-H	F. anhuiensis	[163]
345	Persicanidine A	R1 = β-OH; R2 = H; R3 = CH3; R4 = α-CH3; R5 = R7 = α-H; R6 = β-H	F. persica	[164]
346	Yibeirine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = OH; R3 = CH3; R4 = β-CH3; R5 = R7 = β-H; R6 = α-H	F. pallidiflora	[123]
347	Yibeinone C	R1 = O; R2 = OH; R3 = CH3; R4 = α-CH3; R5 = R7 = β-H; R6 = α-H	F. pallidiflora	[156]
348	Yibeinone E	R1 = O; R2 = CH3; R3 = H; R4 = α-CH3; R5 = R6 = α-H; R7 = H	F. pallidiflora	[165]
349	Germaline	R1 = R3 = R6 = H; R2 = COC(OH)(CH3)CH(OAc)CH3; R4 = α-OH; R5 = α-O-2-methylbutyroyl	Veratrum. lobelianum	[166]
350	Germatetrine	R1 = R3 = R6 = H; R2 = COC(OH)(CH3)CH(OAc)CH3; R4 = α-OAc; R5 = α-O-2-methylbutyroyl	V. lobelianum	[166]
351	Stenophylline A	R1 = R3 = R6 = H; R2 = Ang; R4 = α-OH; R5 = α-O-Ang	V. stenophyllum	[167]
352	Maackinine	R1 = R3 = R6 = H; R2 = Ang; R4 = α-OAc; R5 = α-O-Ang	V. maackii	[168]
353	Verussurinine	R1 = R2 = R3 = H; R4 = R5 = α-OH; R6 = 2-methylbutyroyl	V. nigrum var. ussuriense	[169]
354	Verussurine	R1 = R3 = R6 = H; R2 = Ver; R4 = α-OAc; R5 = α-OCOCH(CH3)CH2CH3	V. nigrum var. ussuriense	[170]
355	Verabenzoamine	R1 = R3 = R6 = H; R2 = Ver; R4 = α-OH; R5 = α-OCOCH(CH3)CH2CH3	V. nigrum var. ussuriense	[170]
356	Angeloylzygadenine	R1 = R3 = R4 = R6 = H; R2 = Ang; R5 = α-OH	V. viride	[171]
357	Zygadenine	R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R6 = H; R5 = α-OH	V. viride	[171]
358	Germine	R1 = R2 = R3 = R6 = H; R4 = β-OH; R5 = α-OH	V. viride	[171]
359	15-O-Methylbutyroylgermine	R1 = R2 = R3 = R6 = H; R4 = β-OH; R5 = α-O-Methylbutyroyl	V. viride	[171]
360	Neojerminalanine	R1 = α-OAc; R2 = R3 = R6 = H; R4 = α-OH; R5 = α-OOCOCH(CH3)CH2CH3	V. album	[172]
361	15-Angeloylgermine	R1 = R2 = R3 = R6 = H; R4 = α-OH; R5 = Ang	V. taliense	[173]
362		R1 = R3 = R6 = H; R2 = Ac; R4 = α-OAc; R5 = Ang	V. dahuricum	[174]
363		R1 = R3 = R5 = R6 = H; R2 = Ver; R4 = α-OH	V. dahuricum	[174]
364		R1 = R3 = R6 = H; R2 = Ac; R4 = α-OH; R5 = Ang	V. dahuricum	[174]
365		R1 = R3 = R6 = H; R2 = Ver; R4 = α-OH; R5 = Ang	V. dahuricum	[174]
366	15-O-(2-Methylbutanoyl)-3-O-veratroylprotoverine	R1 = R6 = H; R2 = Ver; R3 = R4 = α-OH; R5 = α-OCOCH(CH3)CH2CH3	V. nigrum	[175]
367	Veramadine A	R1 = R3 = R5 = R6 = H; R2 = Ver; R4 = α-OH	V. maackii var. japonicum	[176]
368	Veramadine B	R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = R6 = H	V. maackii var. japonicum	[176]
369	Ebeienine	R1 = R2 = β-OH	Fritillaria ebeiensis	[138]
370	Ziebeimine	R1 = α-OH; R2 = β-OH	F. ebeiensis	[132]
371	Heilonine		F. ussuriensis	[121]
372	Pingbeinone		F. ussuriensis	[120]
373	Ussuriedine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = H	F. ussuriensis	[177]
374	Ussuriedinone	R1 = O; R2 = H	F. ussuriensis	[177]
375	Ussurienine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = CH3	F. ussuriensis	[177]
376	Ussurienone	R1 = O; R2 = CH3	F. ussuriensis	[177]
377	Taipaienine	R1 = H; R2 = β-H	F. taipaiensis	[122]
378	Yibeisine	R1 = OH; R2 = α-H	F. pallidiflora	[123]
379	Neoverataline A	R = H	Veratrum taliense	[125]
380	Neoverataline B	R = α-OH	V. taliense	[125]
381		R = Ver	V. nigrum	[126]
382	Frithunbol A		Fritillaria thunbergii	[178]
383	Frititorine A		F. tortifolia	[124]
384	Frititorine B	R = d-Glc	F. tortifolia	[124]

Veratrenone (294), the first alkaloid with a cevanine skeleton from V. album, was investigated in 1974 [118]. The structure of isobaimonidine (301), the C-6 epimer of baimonidine (299), was deduced by chemical transformation [119]. Eleven glycoalkaloids (302, 317, 326, 329–331, 333, 337, 341, 343 and 384) have been isolated from various Fritillaria species in cevanine-type alkaloids. Alkaloid pingbeinone (372) has a unique structure with a lack of a C-18 methylene unit, and its structure could be unequivocally established by X-ray diffraction of its corresponding hydroiodide salt [120]. Alkaloids 349–368 belong to the rarely occurring class of cholestane alkaloids having a tetrahydrofuran ring incorporated in their structures. Heilonine (371), the first example with an aromatic D-ring in the group of cevanine alkaloids, was isolated from Fritillaria ussuriensis in the group of Kaneko [121]. Compounds 373–376 are four unique steroidal alkaloids with a seven-membered G-ring formed by a connection between C-18 and C-27. Taipaienine (377) [122] and yibeisine (378) [123], which are unique in bearing a C-25 hydroxyl moiety as of a cevanine system, have been isolated from Fritillaria taipaiensis and Fritillaria pallidiflora, respectively. Compounds 318–321 and frititorine B (384) [124] are steroidal alkaloid N-oxide derivatives. Neoverataline A (379) and neoverataline B (380), having a novel 3,4-secocevane-4,9-olid-3-oic acid skeleton, were obtained from the genus Veratrum [125]. Compound 381 possesses a rare 9-hydroxy moiety within cevanine-type alkaloids [126].

Veratramine type

The veratramine type of steroidal alkaloids, in which ring E of cevane has been opened at C-18 (Fig. 8). Compounds 385–411, a total of 27 veratramine alkaloids, have been found in Veratrum and Fritillaria (Table 7).

Fig. 8

Structures of veratramine type steroidal alkaloids 385–411

Table 7

Structures and sources of veratramine type steroidal alkaloids 385–411

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
385	Hosukinidine	R1 = R2 = R4 = H; R3 = β-CH3	Veratrum grandiflorum	[180]
386	Veratramanol A	R1 = X; R2 = β-H; R3 = α-CH3; R2 = β-OAc	Veratrum maackii var. japonicum	[181]
387	Veratramine-N-oxide		V. mentzeanum	[182]
388	Ningpeisine	R = H	Fritillaria ningguoensis	[183]
389	Ningpeisinoside	R = d-Glc	F. ningguoensis	[183]
390	20-Isoveratramine	R1 = H; R2 = H; R3 = β-CH3	Veratrum patulum	[184]
391	Veratramine-3-yl acetate	R1 = Ac; R2 = H; R3 = α-CH3	V. nigrum	[129]
392	Veratramine	R1 = H; R2 = H; R3 = α-CH3	V. dahuricum	[185]
393	Veratrosine	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = H; R3 = α-CH3	V. dahuricum	[185]
394	Veratravine E	R1 = H; R2 = OH; R3 = α-CH3	Veratrum taliense	[186]
395	23-O-β-d-Glucopyranosyl-20-isoveratramine	R = d-Glc	V. patulum	[187]
396	(22S,23R,25S)-23-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-5,11,13-veratratriene-3b,23-diol	R = d-Glc	V. patulum	[187]
397	Veramarine		V. album	[172]
398	Impranine	R = O	Fritillaria imperialis	[179]
399	Dihydroimpranine	R = β-OH	F. imperialis	[179]
400	Puqienine A	R = β-OH	F. puqiensis	[188]
401	Puqienine B	R = O	F. puqiensis	[188]
402	Yibeinone B	R1 = H; R2 = β-OH; R3 = α-H; R4 = O	F. pallidiflora	[156]
403	Veratravine F	R1 = α-OH; R2 = α-OH; R3 = β-H; R4 = H	Veratrum taliense	[186]
404	Veratravine G	R1 = α-OH; R2 = β-OH; R3 = β-H; R4 = H	Veratrum taliense	[186]
405	Veratravine A	R = d-Glc	Veratrum taliense	[186]
406	Veratravine B		Veratrum taliense	[186]
407	Veratravine C		Veratrum taliense	[186]
408	Veratravine D		Veratrum taliense	[186]
409	△5(20R,24R)23-oxo-24-methylsolacongetidine	R = β- CH3	Veratrum grandiflorum	[189]
410	△5(20S,24R)23-oxo-24-methylsolacongetidine	R = α-CH3	V. grandiflorum	[189]
411	Zhebeisine		Fritillaria thunbergii	[190]

Thirteen alkaloids, 387, 390–394, 402–408 containing an aromatic D-ring are unusual in C27 steroidal alkaloids, and concurrently 387 is a steroidal alkaloid N-oxide derivative. A chemical investigation of the hypogeal parts of Fritillaria imperialis furnished two unique bases, impranine (398) and dihydroimpranine (399), which have a methyl group at C-12. This is the first time the novel “impranane” class derived from the veratramine skeleton has been found in the genus Fritillaria [179]. Veratravine A (405) and zhebeisine (411) contain a new oxazinane ring F forming a rare 6/6/5/6/6/6 fused-ring system.

Jervine type

The steroidal alkaloids of the jervine subgroup are hexacyclic compounds that have the tetrahydrofuran E ring fused onto a methylpiperidine F ring system forming an ether bridge between carbon atoms C17 and C23 (Fig. 9) [15]. The jervine type currently consists of 29 new members (412−440) from Veratrum and Fritillaria (Table 8).

Fig. 9

Structures of jervine type steroidal alkaloids 412–440

Table 8

Structures and sources of jervine type steroidal alkaloids 412–440

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
412	Verdine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = H; R3 = R4 = α-OH	Veratrum dahuricum	[191]
413	1-Hydroxy-5,6-dihydrojervine	R1 = α-OH; R2 = R4 = H; R3 = β-OH	V. album	[196]
414	2β-Hydroxyverdine	R1 = R2 = β-OH; R3 = R4 = α-OH	V. dahuricum	[197]
415	(1β,3α,5β)-1,3-Dihydroxyjervanin-12-en-11- one	R1 = β-OH; R2 = R4 = H; R3 = α-OH	V. nigrum	[198]
416	Veratraline C	R1 = R3 = α-OH; R2 = R4 = H	V. taliense	[199]
417	Kuroyurinidine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = α-OH; R3 = β-OH; R4 = α-H	Fritillaria camtschatcensis	[193]
418	23-Isokuroyurinidine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = α-OH; R3 = β-OH; R4 = β-H	F. maximowiczii	[194]
419	Frithunbol B	R1 = H; R2 = β-OH; R3 = O; R4 = β-H	F. thunbergii	[178]
420	Frititorinec	R1 = H; R2 = α-OH; R3 = O; R4 = α-H	Fritillaria tortifolia	[124]
421	Yibeissine	R1 = β-OH; R2 = β-CH3	F. pallidiflora	[200]
422	Tortifolisine	R1 = H; R2 = α-CH3	F. tortifolia	[201]
423	Verapatulin	R1 = H; R2 = O; R3 = COOCH3	Veratrum patulum	[184]
424	O-Acetyljervine	R1 = Ac; R2 = O; R3 = H	V. album	[202]
425	Methyljervine-N-3′-propanoate	R1 = H; R2 = O; R3 = (CH2)2COOCH3	V. album	[202]
426	Neoverapatuline	R1 = H; R2 = α-OH; R3 = COOCH3	V. nigrum	[198]
427	Jervine	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = O	V. dahuricum	[185]
428	Jervine-3-yl formate	R1 = COH; R2 = O; R3 = H	V. nigrum	[129]
429	Veratraline A	R1 = H; R2 = O; R3 = CH2NHAc	V. taliense	[199]
430	Jervinone		V. album	[196]
431	23-Methoxycyclopamine	R1 = H; R2 = CH3	V. nigrum	[175]
432	Cyclopamine	R1 = R2 = H	V. californicum	[4]
433	23-methoxycyclopamine 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = CH3	V. maackii	[203]
434	Veraussine A	R1 = R3 = α-OH; R2 = β-OH; R4 = COOEt	V. nigrum var. ussuriense	[204]
435	Veraussine B	R1 = R3 = α-OH; R2 = β-OH; R4 = COOCH3	V. nigrum var. ussuriense	[204]
436	(1β,3β,5β)-1,3-Dihydroxyjervanin-12(13)-en-11-one	R1 = R3 = β-OH; R2 = R4 = H	V. nigrum	[129]
437	6,7-Epoxyverdine		V. taliense	[195]
438	Jerv-5,11-diene-3β,13β-diol		V. nigrum	[129]
439	Yibeinone A		Fritillaria pallidiflora	[156]
440	Veratraline B		Veratrum taliense	[199]

Verdine (412) was first separated from the bulbs of Veratrum dahuricum in 1980 [191], and its structure was finally elucidated in 1984 by X-ray diffraction [192]. Two new steroidal alkaloids, kuroyurinidine (417) [193] and 23-isokuroyurinidine (418) [194], bearing C-2β, C-3α, and C-6β hydroxyl groups, were found in the genus Fritillaria. Whole plants of Veratrum taliense have yielded a novel steroidal alkaloid, 6,7-epoxyverdine (437), whose structure with an epoxide functionality at C-5/C-6 was determined by 2D NMR spectroscopic analysis [195]. Yibeinone A (439) features a jervine skeleton with a rare 12α,13α-epoxy ring [156].

Spirosolane type

Spirosolane alkaloids (441–526) have a unique 1-oxa-6-azaspiro[4.5] decane ring system in ring E, which can form a spirosolane 22-α N type and 22-β N type (Fig. 10) [205]. They were reported from Solanum and Lycopersicon in the Solanaceae family, Fritillaria meleagris and Lilium longiflorum in the Liliaceae family (Table 9).

Fig. 10

Structures of spirosolane type steroidal alkaloids 441–526

Table 9

Structures and sources of spirosolane type steroidal alkaloids 441–526

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
441	β-Soladulcine	R1 = Solatriose; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = CH3	Solanum dulcamara	[210]
442	Soladulcidine	R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. dulcamara	[211]
443	Soladulcine A	R1 = Chacotriose; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = CH3	S. dulcamara	[212]
444	Soladulcine B	R1 = Lycotetraose; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = CH3	S. dulcamara	[212]
445	Dihydrosolasuaveoline	R1 = l-Rha-(1 → 2)-[D-Glc-(1 → 2)-d-Glc-(1 → 4)]-d-Gal; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = CH3	S. suaveolens	[213]
446	Solalyratine A	R1 = d-Xyl-(1 → 3)-d-Gal; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = CH3	S. lyratum	[214]
447	Solalyratine B	R1 = [d-Xyl-(1 → 2)-d-Glc-(1 → 4)-d-Gal]; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = CH3	S. lyratum	[214]
448	Esculeoside A	R1 = Lycotetraose; R2 = OAc; R3 = R4 = H; R5 = CH2-O-d-Glc	Lycopersicon esculentum var. cerasiforme	[206]
449	Lycotetraose G	R1 = Lycotetraose; R2 = OAc; R3 = O-d-Glc; R4 = CH3; R5 = H	Lycopersicon esculentum var. cerasiforme	[206]
450	22-Imido-3-[4ʹ-(6ʺ-deoxy-α-l-mannoside)-β-d-glucoside]-5-dehydro spirostane	R1 = l-Rha-(1 → 4)-d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = H; R5 = CH3	Solanum xanthocarpum	[215]
451	Neorickiioside B	R1 = Lycotetraose; R2 = OH; R3 = R5 = H; R4 = CH3	S. neorickii	[216]
452	β2-Tomatine	R = d-Xyl-(1 → 3)-d-Glc-(1 → 4)-d-Gal	Lycopersicon esculentum	[217]
453	Dihydro-β-Solamarine	R = Chacotriose	Solanum dulcamara	[218]
454	Polyanine	R = d-Xyl-(1 → 2)-d-Xyl-(1 → 3)-d-Glc	S. polyadenium	[219]
455	Sisunine	R = Commertetraose	S. ajanhuiri	[220]
456	Tomatidine-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside	R = d-Glc	S. arboreum	[221]
457	Tomatidine-3-O-β-[d-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 6)]-β-d-glucopyranoside	R = d-Xyl-(1 → 6)-d-Glc	S. arboreum	[221]
458	Tomatidine	R = H	Lycopersicon esculentum	[222]
459	α-Tomatine	R = Lycotetraose	L. esculentum	[216]
460	β-Tomatine	R = d-Glc-(1 → 2)-d-Glc-(1 → 4)-d-Gal	Solanum nigrum	[223]
461	γ-Tomatine	R = d-Glc-(1 → 4)-d-Gal	S. tuberosum	[223]
462	Δ-Tomatine	R = d-Gal	Lycopersicon esculentum	[223]
463	γ-Solamarine	R = l-Rha-(1 → 4)-d-Glc	Solanum dulcamara	[224]
464	γ1-Solamarine	R = l-Rha-(1 → 2)-d-Glc	S. dulcamara	[225]
465	δ-Solamarine	R = d-Glc-(1 → 3)-d-Gal	S. dulcamara	[225]
466	22,25-Diepisycophantine	R = [D-Xyl-(1 → 2)-l-Rha-(1 → 4)]-l-Rha-(1 → 2)-d-Glc	S. sycophanta	[226]
467	Solaculine A	R = [D-Xyl-(1 → 2)-l-Rha-(1 → 4)]-l-Rha-(1 → 2)-d-Glc	S. aculeastrum	[227]
468	Tomatidenol	R = H	S. auiculare	[228]
469	(22S, 25S)-spirosol-5-en-3β-yl O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 4)-O-[α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)]-β-d-glucopyranoside	R = d-Glc-(1 → 4)-[L-Rha-(1 → 2)]-d-Glc	Fritillaria meleagris	[229]
470	β-Solamarine	R = d-Glc-(1 → 4)-[L-Rha-(1 → 2)]-d-Glc	S. nigrum	[223]
471	α-Solamarine	R = Solatriose	Solanum nigrum	[223]
472	Dehydrotomatine	R = Lycotetraose	Lycopersicon esculentum	[223]
473	N-hydroxysolamargine	R = Chacotriose	S. robustum	[230]
474	3-O-β-lycotetraoside of solasodine	R1 = Lycotetraose; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. japonense	[231]
475	Spirosolane β-d-glucopyranoside deriv	R1 = Chacotriose; R2 = R4 = H; R3 = β-OH; R5 = OH	S. nigrum	[232]
476	Solaverine I	R1 = Chacotriose; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = OH	S. toxicarium; S. verbascifolium	[233]
477	Solaverine II	R1 = d-Glc-(1 → 3)-[L-Rha-(1 → 2)]-d-Gal; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = OH	S. toxicarium; S. verbascifolium	[233]
478	Solaverine III	R1 = Chacotriose;R2 = R3 = H; R4 = R5 = OH	S. toxicarium; S. verbascifolium	[233]
479	Incanumine	R1 = [D-Xyl-(1 → 4)-l-Rha-(1 → 4)]-d-Xyl-(1 → 3)-d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. incanum	[234]
480	(23S)-23-Hydroxyanguivine	R1 = d-Xyl-(1 → 3)-[L-Rha-(1 → 2)]-d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = OH	S. uporo	[233]
481	β1-Solamargine	R1 = l-Rha-(1 → 2)-d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. robustum	[235]
482	Anguivine	R1 = [D-Xyl-(1 → 3)-l-Rha-(1 → 2)]-d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. anguivi	[236]
483	Robustine	R1 = l-Ara-(1 → 3)-[L-Rha-(1 2)]-[L-Rha-(1 → 4)]-d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. robustum	[235]
484	Ravifoline	R1 = l-Rha-(1 → 4)-[L-Rha-(1 → 2)]-d-Xyl; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. platanifolium	[237]
485	(3β,22α,25R)-Spirosol-5-en-3-yl 6-deoxy-α-l-mannopyranoside	R1 = l-Rha; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. unguiculatum	[238]
486	Robeneoside A	R1 = Chacotriose; R2 = R4 = R5 = H; R3 = α-OH	S. lycocarpum	[238]
487	3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-α-l-rham-nopyranosyl-(1 → 4)-β-d-galactopyranosyl solasodine	R1 = l-Rha-(1 → 4)-[L-Rha-(1 → 2)]-d-Gal; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. unguiculatum	[238]
488	Sycophantine	R1 = [D-Xyl-(1 → 2)-l-Rha-(1 → 4)]-l-Rha-(1 → 2)-d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. coccineum	[239]
489	Solanelagnin	R1 = l-Rha-(1 → 4)-[L-Rha-(1 → 3)]-d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. elaeagnifolium	[240]
490	12-Hydroxysolasonine	R1 = Solatriose; R2 = R4 = R5 = H; R3 = β-OH	S. uporo	[241]
491	Isoanguivine	R1 = d-Xyl-(1 → 3)-[L-Rha-(1 → 2)]-d-Gal; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. uporo	[241]
492	Solashabanine	R1 = [D-Glc-(1 → 6)-d-Glc-(1 → 3)]-l-Rha-(1 → 2)-d-Gal; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. suaveolens	[213]
493	(23S)-23-Hydroxyisoanguivine	R1 = d-Xyl-(1 → 3)-[L-Rha-(1 → 2)]-d-Gal; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = OH	S. uporo	[241]
494	Solasuaveoline	R1 = l-Rha-(1 → 2)-[D-Glc-(1 → 2)-d-Glc-(1 → 4)-d-Gal; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. suaveolens	[213]
495	(25R)-3β-[O-α-l-Rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-[O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 4)-O-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 4)]-β-d-glucopyranosyl]-22α-spirosol-5-ene	R1 = [D-Glc-(1 → 4)-l-Rha-(1 → 4)]vRha-(1 → 2)-d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. aculeastrum	[242]
496	Arudoine	R1 = d-Xyl-(1 → 3)-[L-Rha-(1 → 2)]-[L-Rha-(1 → 4)]-d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. arundo	[243]
497	Robeneoside B	R1 = Solatriose; R2 = R4 = R5 = H; R3 = α-OH	S. lycocarpum	[244]
498	27-Hydroxysolamargine	R1 = Chacotriose; R2 = R3 = R4 = H; R5 = OH	S. asperum	[244]
499	12-Hydroxysolamargine	R1 = Chacotriose; R2 = R4 = R5 = H; R3 = β-OH	S. lycocarpum	[245]
500	α-Solamargine	R1 = Chacotriose; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. macrocarpon; S. aethiopicum	[246]
501	α-Solasonine	R1 = Solatriose; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. macrocarpon; S. aethiopicum	[246]
502	(22R,25R)-spirosol-5-en-3β-yl	R1 = d-Glc-(1 → 4)-[L-Rha-(1 → 2)]-d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	Lilium longiflorum	[247]
503	O-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-[6-O-acetyl-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 4)]-β-d-glucopyranoside	R1 = 6-Ac-d-Glc-(1 → 4)-[L-Rha-(1 → 2)]-d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	L longiflorum	[247]
504	(22R,25R)-16β-H-22α-N-spirosol-3β-ol-5-ene-3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 4)]-β-d-glucopyranoside	R1 = Chacotriose; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H; C16 = R configuration	Solanum surattense	[207]
505	γ-Solamargine	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. nigrum	[248]
506	β1-Solasonine	R1 = l-Rha-(1 → 2)-d-Gal; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. nigrum	[248]
507	Solanigroside P	R1 = l-Rha-(1 → 4)-d-Glc; R2 = R4 = R5 = H; R3 = α-OH	S. nigrum	[248]
508	Khasianine	R1 = l-Rha-(1 → 4)-d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. nigrum	[249]
509	β2-Solasonine	R1 = d-Glc-(1 → 4)-d-Gal; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. nigrum	[250]
510	7α-Hydroxy-khasianine	R1 = l-Rha-(1 → 4)-d-Glc; R2 = α-OH; R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. nigrum	[250]
511	7α-Hydroxy-solamargine	R1 = Chacotriose; R2 = α-OH; R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. nigrum	[250]
512	7α-Hydroxy-solasonine	R1 = Solatriose; R2 = α-OH; R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. nigrum	[250]
513	Solasodine	R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	Lycopersicon esculentum; Solanum nigrum; S.dulcamara	[223]
514	γ-Solasonine	R1 = d-Gal; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. nigrum	[223]
515	(25R)-22αN-spirosol-5(6)-en-3β-ol-7-oxo-3-O-α-Lrhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-[α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 4)]-β-d-glucopyranoside	R1 = Chacotriose; R2 = O; R3 = R4 = R5 = H	S. nigrum	[251]
516	Solasodiene		S. torvum	[252]
517	(22R,25R)3β-amino-5α-spirosolane		S. triste	[208]
518	(22R,25R)3β-amino-5-spirosolene		S. triste	[208]
519	(22S,25S)-3β-aminospirosol-5-ene	R = β-NH2; △5,6	S. arboreum	[209]
520	Soladunalinidine	R = β-NH2	S. arboreum	[209]
521	3-Epi-soladunalinidine	R = α-NH2	S. arboreum	[209]
522	Caavuranamide	R = β-NHCHO	S. caavurana	[253]
523	5-Tomatidan-3-one	R = O	S. caavurana	[253]
524	5β-solasodan-3-one		S. aviccculare	[254]
525	4-Tomatiden-3-one		S. caavurana	[253]
526	(25R)-22αN-spirosol-4(5)-en-3β-ol-6-oxo-3-O-α-Lrhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-[α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 4)]-β-d-glucopyranoside	R = Chacotriose	S. nigrum	[251]

Spirosolane alkaloids generally occur as glycosides. Compounds 441– 451 have no double bond between C-5 and C-6, and the nitrogen atom in the F ring is always in the α-orientation (22-α N). Ring F can contain other moieties, such as hydroxyl or acetyl groups. Most glycosidic units are attached to the aglycone at the hydroxyl group at C-3, but some of them may be attached at other locations, such as C-6, C-7, C-23, C-25, and C-27. For example, esculeoside A (448) and lycotetraose G (449) have one glucose linked to ring-F at C-25 and C-23, respectively [206]. Compounds 474–515 are the largest members in spirosolane alkaloids, with 22-β N and double bonds between C-5 and C-6. Almost all spirosolane alkaloids at C-16 are in the β-orientation, however, 504 is an exception since it possesses a 16 β-H in its E ring [207]. There are many substitutions and changes in these compounds, such as 475, 478 and 498 have a hydroxy group on C-27 in the F ring, and 486, 497, 499 and 507 have a hydroxy group on C-12 in the C ring. Five rare C-3 amino spirosolane alkaloids, 517–521 [208, 209] were isolated from aerial parts of the genus Solanum.

Solanidine type

In the solanidine type, the side-chain of a C27 steroid has been converted into an indolizidine ring (Fig. 11). Solanidine alkaloids (527–555) currently include 29 novel members from Veratrum, Fritillaria and Solanum (Table 10).

Fig. 11

Structures of solanidine type steroidal alkaloids 527–555

Table 10

Structures and sources of solanidine type steroidal alkaloids 527–555

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
527	α-Chaconine	R1 = Chacotriose; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = R6 = CH3	Solanum chacoense	[224]
528	α-Solanine	R1 = Solatriose; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = R6 = CH3	S. tuberosum; S. nigrum	[255]
529	Leptine I	R1 = Chacotriose; R2 = R3 = H; R4 = R6 = CH3; R5 = OAc	S. chacoense	[224]
530	Leptinine I	R1 = Chacotriose; R2 = R3 = H; R4 = R6 = CH3; R5 = OH	S. orbignianum	[258]
531	Leptine II	R1 = Solatriose; R2 = R3 = H; R4 = R6 = CH3; R5 = OAc	S. chacoense	[224]
532	Leptinine II	R1 = Solatriose; R2 = R3 = H; R4 = R6 = CH3; R5 = OH	S. orbignianum	[258]
533	Dehydrodemissine	R1 = Lycotetraose; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = R6 = CH3	S. commersonii	[259]
534	Dehydrocommersonine	R1 = Commertetraose; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = R6 = CH3	S. chacoense	[224]
535	Solanidine	R1 = R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = R6 = CH3	S. tuberosum	[260]
536	Epirubijervin	R1 = R2 = R5 = H; R3 = β-OH; R4 = R6 = CH3	Veratrum grandiflorum	[180]
537	Camtschatcanidine	R1 = R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = CH3; R6 = CH2OH	Fritillaria camtschatcensis	[261]
538	Oligoglycoside	R1 = [l-Rha-(1 → 2)][D-Glc-(1 → 4)]-d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = R6 = CH3	F. thunbergii	[262]
539	(22S,25S)-solanid-5-en-3β-ol	R1 = R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = R6 = CH3	Fritillaria anhuiensis	[256]
540	(3β,7β)-7-Hydroxysolanid-5-en-3-yl 6-deoxy-α-l-mannopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-[6-deoxy-α-l-mannopyranosyl-(1 → 4)]-β-d-glucopyranoside	R1 = 6-deoxy-l-Man-(1 → 2)-[6-deoxy-l-Man-(1 → 4)]-d-Glu; R2 = β-OH; R3 = R5 = H; R4 = R6 = CH3	Solanum tuberosum	[257]
541	(3β)-7-Oxosolanid-5-en-3-yl 6-deoxy-α-l-mannopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-[6-deoxy-α-l-mannopyranosyl-(1 → 4)]-β-d-glucopyranoside	R1 = 6-deoxy-l-Man-(1 → 2)-[6-deoxy-l-Man-(1 → 4)]-d-Glc; R2 = O; R3 = R5 = H; R4 = R6 = CH3	S. tuberosum	[257]
542	(3β)-7-Oxosolanid-5-en-3-yl 6-Deoxy-α-l-mannopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-[β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 3)]-β-d-galactopyranoside	R1 = 6-deoxy-l-Man-(1 → 2)-[D-Glc-(1 → 3)]-d-Gal; R2 = O; R3 = R5 = H; R4 = R6 = CH3	S. tuberosum	[257]
543	Isorubijervine	R1 = R2 = R3 = R5 = H; R4 = CH2OH; R6 = CH3	Veratrum viride	[263]
544	Rubijervine	R1 = R2 = R5 = H; R3 = β-OH; R4 = R6 = CH3	V. taliense	[263]
545	Demissine	R1 = Lycotetraose; R2 = H	Solanum chacoense; S. commersonii	[264]
546	Commersonine	R1 = Commertetraose; R2 = H	S. chacoense; S. commersonii	[264]
547	Demissidine	R1 = R2 = H	S. tuberosum	[265]
548	Dihydro-β1-Chaconine	R1 = l-Rha-(1 → 2)-d-Glc; R2 = H	S. juzepczukii; S. curtilobum	[266]
549	Dihydrosolanine	R1 = Solatriose; R2 = H	S. juzepczukii; S. curtilobum	[266]
550	(22R,25S)-solanid-5-enine-3β,5α,6β-triol	R = H	Fritillaria delavayi	[133]
551	(3β,5α,6β)-5,6-Dihydroxysolanidan-3-yl 6-Deoxy-α-l-mannopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-[6-deoxy-α-l-mannopyranosyl-(1 → 4)]-β-d-glucopyranoside	R = 6-deoxy-l-Man-(1 → 2)-[6-deoxy-l-Man-(1 → 4)]-d-Glc	Solanum tuberosum	[257]
552	15,16-Seco-22αH,25βH-solanida-5,14-dien-3β-ol-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 4)-β-d-xylopyranoside	R = d-Glc-(1 → 4)]-d-Xyl	Fritillaria maximowiczii	[194]
553	(22S,25S)-Solanid-5,20(21)-dien-3β-ol		F. anhuiensis	[256]
554	(3β)-14-Hydroxysolanid-5-en-3-yl 4-O-(6-Deoxy-α-l-mannopyranosyl)-β-d-glucopyranoside	R = 4-O-(6-deoxy-l-Man)-d-Glc	Solanum tuberosum	[257]
555	(E)-N-[80(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]-22α,23α-epoxy-solanida-1,4,9-trien-3-imine		S. campaniform	[267]

α-Solanine (528) was found mainly in the tuber of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) and in the whole plant of the nightshade (Solanum nigrum Linn.) of the Solanaceae family [255]. The bulbs of F. delavayi yielded (22R,25S)-solanid-5-enine-3β,5α,6β-triol (550) [133], the first example with a glycol moiety at the A- and B-rings in the group of solanidine alkaloids. An investigation of V. dahuricum furnished unusual glycoalkaloid 552 [194], which represents the first member of a new class with a 15,16-secosolanida-5,14-diene skeleton. The two novel compounds, 553 [256] and 554 [257], bearing a methylene substituent at C-20 and C-7, respectively, were structurally elucidated by extensive 2D NMR analysis.

Verazine type

Members of the verazine type, having a 22/23,26-epiminocholestane skeleton, are characterized by the absence of ring E and the presence of a piperidine ring D and consist of 46 new members (556–601) (Fig. 12). They were obtained from Veratrum, Fritillaria, Allium victorialis and Zygadenus sibiricus in the Liliaceae family, and only one Solanum species, Solanum Hypomalacophyllum (Table 11).

Fig. 12

Structures of verazine type steroidal alkaloids 556–601

Table 11

Structures and sources of verazine type steroidal alkaloids 556–601

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
556	Hapepunine	R1 = R4 = R5 = R7 = H; R2 = R6 = CH3; R3 = β-OH	Fritillaria camtschatcensis	[272]
557	Anrakorinine	R1 = R4 = R5 = R7 = H; R2 = CH2OH; R3 = β-OH; R6 = CH3	F. camtschatcensis	[272]
558	Hapepunine 3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-β-d-glucopyranoside	R1 = d-Glc(2 → 1)-l-Rha; R2 = R6 = CH3; R3 = β-OH; R4 = R5 = R7 = H	F. thunbergii	[262]
559	Pingbeidinoside	R1 = H; R2 = R5 = R7 = CH3; R3 = α-OH; R4 = OH; R6 = O-d-Glc	F. ussuriensis	[273]
560	Pingbeinine	R1 = R4 = H; R2 = R5 = CH3; R3 = β-OH; R6 = OH; R7 = CH3	F. ussuriensis	[274]
561	Pingbeininoside	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = R5 = CH3; R3 = β-OH; R4 = H; R6 = OH; R7 = CH3	F. ussuriensis	[274]
562	Hapepunine 3-O-β-cellobioside	R1 = d-Glc(4 → 1)-d-Glc; R2 = R6 = CH3; R3 = β-OH; R4 = R5 = R7 = H	F. maximowiczii	[193]
563	Muldamine	R1 = R2 = R4 = H; R3 = α-OAc; R5 = R6 = α-H; R7 = β-H	Veratrum californicum	[275]
564	Stenophylline B	R1 = R2 = R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = R6 = β-H; R7 = α-H	V. stenophyllum	[268]
565	Vertaline B	R1 = R2 = H; R3 = β-OH; R4 = OH; R5 = R7 = β-H; R6 = α-H	V. taliense	[276]
566	Veramiline-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = H; R5 = R6 = β-H; R7 = α-H	V. taliense	[277]
567	Stenophylline-β-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = R3 = H; R4 = OH; R5 = R6 = β-H; R7 = α-H	V. taliense	[277]
568	Veramivirine	R1 = R3 = R4 = H; R2 = β-OH; R5 = R7 = β-H; R6 = α-H	V. viride	[278]
569	Oblonginine	R1 = R2 = R4 = H; R3 = β-OH; R5 = R7 = β-H; R6 = α-H	V. oblongum	[279]
570	Verazinine	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H; R6 = β-CH3	Zygadenus sibiricus	[280]
571	Veranigrine	R1 = R3 = R4 = R5 = H; R2 = β-OH; R6 = β-CH3	Veratrum nigrum	[281]
572	Veramitaline	R1 = R2 = R4 = R5 = H; R3 = α-OH; R6 = β-CH3	V. nigrum	[281]
573	(20R,25R)-12β-O-acetyl-20β-hydroxyisoverazine	R1 = R2 = R5 = H; R3 = β-OAc; R4 = OH; R6 = α-CH3	V. grandiflorum	[282]
574	(20R,25R)-12β-O-acetyl-20β-hydroxyisoverazine-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = R5 = H; R3 = β-OAc; R4 = OH; R6 = α-CH3	V. grandiflorum	[282]
575	(20R,25R)-isoveralodinine	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = R4 = H; R3 = β-OAc; R5 = O; R6 = α-CH3	V. grandiflorum	[282]
576	Rhamnoveracintine	R = l-Rha	V. album	[269]
577	Puqietinone	R1 = H; R2 = α-CH3; R3 = CH3; R4 = α-H	Fritillaria puqiensis	[188]
578	Yibeinoside C	R1 = d-Glc(1 → 4)-d-Gal; R2 = β-CH3; R3 = H; R4 = β-H	F. pallidiflora	[283]
579	N-Demethylpuqietinone	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = α-CH3; R4 = α-H	F. puqiensis	[188]
580	Puqietinonoside	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = α-CH3; R3 = CH3; R4 = α-H	F. puqiensis	[188]
581	(25R)-22,26-Epimino-3β-hydroxy-5α-cholest-22(N)-en-6-one 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside	R = d-Glc	F. persica	[284]
582	(25R)-23,26-Epimino-3β-hydroxy-5α-cholest-23(N)-en-6,22-dione	R1 = H; R2 = α-CH3	F. persica	[284]
583	(25R)-23,26-Epimino-3b-hydroxy-5α-cholest-23(N)-en-6,22-dione 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = α-CH3	F. persica	[284]
584	(20R,25R)-23,26-Epimino-3b-hydroxy-5α-cholest-23(N)-en-6,22-dione	R1 = H; R2 = β-CH3	F. persica	[284]
585	(20R,25R)-23,26-Epimino-3b-hydroxy-5a-cholest-23(N)-en-6,22-dione 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside	R1 = d-Glc; R2 = β-CH3	F. persica	[284]
586	Ebeietinone		F. ebeiensis	[270]
587	Verdinine	R1 = β-OAc; R2 = β-OH; R3 = β-H; R4 = α-H	Veratrum lobelianum	[271]
588	Fetisinine	R1 = α-OH; R2 = H; R3 = α-H; R4 = β-H	Fritillaria imperialis	[179]
589	Diacetylveralkamine	R1 = Ac; R2 = α-OAc; R3 = α-H; R4 = β-CH3	Veratrum lobelianum	[285]
590	veralinine 3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-β-d-glucopyranoside	R1 = l-Rha-(1 → 2)-d-Glc; R2 = H; R3 = β-H; R4 = α-CH3	V. grandiflorum	[189]
591	Tetrahydroveralkamine		V. lobelianum	[285]
592	Deacetoxysolaphyllidine 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside		Solanum hypomalacophyllum	[286]
593	4-Keto-5,6-dihydro-(20S)-verazine		S. hypomalacophyllum	[286]
594	Allumine A	R = H	Allium victorialis	[287]
595	Allumine B	R = d-Glc	A. victorialis	[287]
596	Allumine C	R = d-Glc-CH2OCO(CH2)10CH3	A. victorialis	[288]
597	Isoecliptalbine		Veratrum maackii	[203]
598	Spiraloside A	R = l-Rha-(1 → 4)-d-Glc	Solanum spirale	[289]
599	Spiraloside B	R = d-Glc	Solanum spirale	[289]
600	Spiraloside C	R = d-Glc	Solanum spirale	[289]
601	Tomatillidine 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside Veratrum dahuricum	R = X	V. dahuricum	[197]

The alkaloidal fraction of Veratrum stenophyllum gave a new 3β,20β-dihydroxy-△5–22,26-epiminocholestane alkaloid, Stenophylline B (564). Its structure was established on the basis of spectroscopic comparisons with known verazine-type alkaloids [268]. Rhamnoveracintine (576), having a five-membered heterocyclic ring and l-rhamnose as structural features, is the first example of a C26 steroidal alkaloid from the aerial parts of a Veratrum species [269]. Ebeietinone (586), the first example of a verazine type alkaloid with a 5β-hydroxyl group, was structurally assigned based on MS and NMR and confirmed by X-ray crystallography [270]. Verdinine (587) [271], fetisinine (588) [179] and isoecliptalbine (597) [203], exhibiting a pyridine ring as a structural feature, were pyridyl-pregnane-type steroidal alkaloids, and their structural assignment was performed by extensive spectroscopic techniques and some chemical transformations.

Others

Two distinctive alkaloids, veragranine A (602) and veragranine B (603), featuring a 6/6/6/5/6/6 polycyclic structure (Fig. 13), in which a previously unidentified linkage of C-12/23 generates a rigid skeleton, resulting in a new subtype of cholestane steroidal alkaloid, were isolated from Veratrum grandiflorum [290].

Fig. 13

Structures of others cholestane steroidal alkaloids 602–603

Miscellaneous monomeric steroidal alkaloids

Samandarines

Approximately 11 samandarines (604–614) are a unique class of steroidal alkaloids isolated and characterized from terrestrial salamanders of the genus Salamandra (Table 12). They differ from other types since they are built by a seven-membered A-ring with nitrogen at position 3. Therefore, they belong to the uncommon group of 3-aza-A-homo-5α,10α-androstans, an androstane with an N-enlarged A-ring (Fig. 14) [291].

Table 12

Structures and sources of samandarines 604–614

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
604	Samandarine	R = β-OH	Salamandra maculosa	[293]
605	Samandarone	R = O	S. maculosa	[294]
606	O-acetylsamandarine	R = β-OAc	S. maculosa	[295]
607	O-(S)-3-hydroxybutanoylsamandarine	R = β-OCOCH2CH(α-OH)CH3	S. salamandra	[296]
608	Samandaridine		S. maculosa	[294]
609	Cycloneosamandione		S. maculosa	[292]
610	Cycloneosamandaridin		S. maculosa	[297]
611	Samandenone		S. maculosa	[298]
612	Samandinine		S. maculosa	[299]
613	Samanine	R = β-OH	S. maculosa	[300]
614	Samanone	R = O	S. salamandra	[296]

Fig. 14

Structures of samandarines 604–614

Samandarines can be further grouped according to their constitution. The first group consists of molecules with an oxazolidine system present, including 604–607, 608 and 610–612. Members of the second group, e.g. cycloneosamandion (609), lack an intact oxazolidine system, whereas they share a carbinolamine function [292]. A third group consists of samandarines in which both the oxazolidine system and the carbinolamine group are missing, and only samanine (613) and samanone (614) were described from this group.

Batrachotoxins

Only 7 batrachotoxins (615–621) were isolated in minute quantities from the skins of poison arrow frogs (Phyllobates aurotaenia) as well as from the skins and feathers of New Guinea birds (genus Pitohui and Iflita) (Table 13). They exhibit novel structural features, including a steroid-based pentacyclic core skeleton, an intramolecular 3-hemiketal, and a seven-membered oxazapane ring (Fig. 15) [301].

Table 13

Structures and sources of batrachotoxins 615–621

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
615	Batrachotoxinin A	R = H	Phyllobates aurotaenia	[302]
616	Pseudobatrachotoxin	R = X1	P. aurotaenia	[302]
617	Batrachotoxin	R = X2	P. aurotaenia	[302]
618	Homobatrachotoxin	R = X3	P. aurotaenia; Pitohui dichrous	[302, 303]
619	Batrachotoxinin A-20R-cis-crotonate	R = COCHCHCH3	Ifrita kowaldi	[304]
620	Batrachotoxinin A-20R-3′-hydroxypentanoate	R = COCH2CH(OH)CH2CH3	I. kowaldi	[304]
621	Batrachotoxinin A-20R-acetate	R = Ac	I. kowaldi	[304]

Fig. 15

Structures of batrachotoxins 615–621

The structure of pseudobatrachotoxin (616) is the 20α-p-bromobenzoate of batrachotoxinin A (615) [302]. Batrachotoxin (617) is the 20α ester of 615 with 2,4-dimethylpyrrole-3-carboxylic acid [302], while homobatrachotoxin (618) is the 20α ester of 615 with 2-ethyl-4-methylpyrrole-3-carboxylic acid [303]. These structures were confirmed by partial synthesis of batrachotoxin selective acylation.

Plakinamines

Considerable research effort has been focused on the discovery of new bioactive natural products from marine animals. A number of new steroidal alkaloids have been isolated in the process, mostly from marine invertebrates. A marine sponge of the genus Plakina and Corticium sp. yielded nineteen new steroidal alkaloids (622–640), namely, plakinamine (Table 14). Plakinamines have modified ergostane-type steroidal cores, as they possess nitrogen substitution at C-3 in the A ring and linear or cyclized nitrogenous side chains (Fig. 16) [305].

Table 14

Structures and sources of plakinamines 622–640

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
622	Plakinamine A	R1 = R2 = R3 = H	Plakina sp.	[308]
623	Plakinamine F	R1 = R2 = CH3; R3 = O	Corticium sp.	[309]
624	Plakinamine B	R1 = α-NHCH3; R2 = H; R3 = CH3	Plakina sp.	[308]
625	Plakinamine H	R1 = β-N(CH3)2; R2 = O; R3 = H	Corticium sp.	[306]
626	4α-Hydroxydemethylplakinamine B	R1 = α-NH2; R2 = β-OH; R3 = CH3	Corticium sp.	[306]
627	Plakinamines C		Corticium sp.	[310]
628	Plakinamines D		Corticium sp.	[310]
629	Plakinamine E		Corticium sp.	[309]
630	Plakinamine G		Corticium sp.	[306]
631	Tetrahydroplakinamine A	R1 = α-NH2; R2 = H	Corticium sp.	[306]
632	Dihydroplakinamine K	R1 = β-NH2; R2 = β-OAc	Corticium niger	[307]
633	Plakinamine I		C. niger	[307]
634	Plakinamine J		C. niger	[307]
635	Plakinamine K	R1 = CH3; R2 = β-OAc	C. niger	[307]
636	Plakinamine N	R1 = R2 = H	C. niger	[311]
637	Plakinamine O	R1 = H; R2 = β-OAc	C.niger	[311]
638	Plakinamine L	R = H	Corticium sp.	[305]
639	Plakinamine M	R = β-OH	Corticium sp.	[312]
640	Plakinamine P		Plakina sp.	[313]

Fig. 16

Structures of plakinamines 622–640

Plakinamine G (630) bearing a rare side chain with an α,β-unsaturated γ-lactam ring was structurally assigned by 2D NMR spectroscopy and accurate mass measurements (HR-EIMS) [306]. Most plakinamines contain a substituted pyrrolidine ring in the steroidal side chain, only in plakinamine I (633) the pyrrolidine nitrogen forms an additional fused piperidine ring system [307]. The first natural representative of steroidal alkaloids with a double bond at C-2 and an amine substituent at C-4 was plakinamine J (634) [307]. Three new steroidal alkaloids, plakinamine L, M and P (638–640), have unprecedented acyclic side chains, while other compounds contain cyclized nitrogenous side chains.

Cortistatins

Kobayashi et al. isolated a new family of abeo-9(10-19)-androstane-type steroidal alkaloids with oxabicyclo[3.2.1]octane called cortistatins, from the Indonesian marine sponge Corticium simplex (Fig. 17, Table 15) [314]. Up to now, this family has 11 members (641–651), with the B and C rings connected through an interesting and characteristic oxo-bridge.

Fig. 17

Structures of cortistatins 641–651

Table 15

Structures and sources of cortistatins 641–651

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
641	Cortistatin A	R1 = H; R2 = H; H	Corticium simplex	[315]
642	Cortistatin B	R1 = H; R2 = α-H; β-OH	C. simplex	[315]
643	Cortistatin C	R1 = H; R2 = O	C. simplex	[315]
644	Cortistatin D	R1 = OH; R2 = O	C. simplex	[315]
645	Cortistatin E	R1 = H; R2 = X1	C. simplex	[316]
646	Cortistatin G	R1 = H; R2 = X2	C. simplex	[316]
647	Cortistatin H	R1 = H; R2 = X3	C. simplex	[316]
648	Cortistatin K	R1 = H; R2 = X4	C. simplex	[317]
649	Cortistatin L	R1 = β-OH; R2 = X4	C. simplex	[317]
650	Cortistatin F	R = X1	C. simplex	[316]
651	Cortistatin J	R = X4	C. simplex	[317]

Cortistatins A–D (641–644) and J–L (651, 648–649) have a 5-membered E-ring decorated with a unique isoquinoline moiety at C-17.

Dimeric steroidal alkaloids

Cephalostatins

The 20 cephalostatins (652–671) have been isolated only in one marine organism: Cephalodiscus gilchristi, a tiny marine worm predominantly found in shallow and temperate waters (Table 16). The structure of cephalostatins, characterized by an adissymmetric bis-steroidal pyrazine framework, consisting of 13 rings is quite unusual (Fig. 18) [20].

Table 16

Structures and sources of cephalostatins 652–671

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
652	Cephalostatin 1	R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = H	Cephalodiscus gilchristi	[322]
653	Cephalostatin 2	R1 = R2 = R3 = H; R4 = OH	C. gilchristi	[323]
654	Cephalostatin 3	R1 = CH3; R2 = R3 = H; R4 = OH	C. gilchristi	[323]
655	Cephalostatin 10	R1 = R2 = H; R3 = OCH3; R4 = OH	C. gilchristi	[318]
656	Cephalostatin 11	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = OCH3; R4 = OH	C. gilchristi	[318]
657	Cephalostatin 18	R1 = R2 = R4 = H; R3 = OCH3	C. gilchristi	[324]
658	Cephalostatin 19	R1 = R3 = R4 = H; R2 = OCH3	C. gilchristi	[324]
659	Cephalostatin 4		C. gilchristi	[323]
660	Cephalostatin 5	R = CH3	C. gilchristi	[320]
661	Cephalostatin 6	R = H	C. gilchristi	[320]
662	Cephalostatin 7		C. gilchristi	[325]
663	Cephalostatin 8		C. gilchristi	[325]
664	Cephalostatin 9	R = H	C. gilchristi	[325]
665	Cephalostatin 20	R = OH	C. gilchristi	[326]
666	Cephalostatin 12	R = H	C. gilchristi	[319]
667	Cephalostatin 13	R = OH	C. gilchristi	[319]
668	Cephalostatin 14	R = H	C. gilchristi	[327]
669	Cephalostatin 15	R = CH3	C. gilchristi	[327]
670	Cephalostatin 16		C. gilchristi	[321]
671	Cephalostatin 17		C. gilchristi	[321]

Fig. 18

Structures of cephalostatins 652–671

The atypical C-22′ spiroketals involving C-18′ in most cephalostatins 1–4 (652−654, 659), 9–11 (664, 655−656), 14–19 (668−671, 657−658) and C-12′ in cephalostatins 5 (660) and cephalostatins 6 (661) are also noteworthy. Cephalostatins 10 (655), 11 (656) [318], and 13 (667) [319] with an oxygen substituent (OMe or OH) at the 1α- or 1′α-positions, close to the central pyrazine ring, are rare in this type alkaloids. Both cephalostatins 5 (660) and 6 (661) contain an aromatic C′ ring that is rather unusual in naturally occurring steroids [320]. The only symmetric cephalostatin 12 (666) containing two identical steroid units is unique [319]. Cephalostatin 16 (670), the only compound contains the [4.5] spiroketal system with the unusual 22S configuration (not yet confirmed by synthesis) in the right side steroid unit, whereas other cephalostatins have a common [4.4] spiroketal system in the right steroidal unit [321].

Ritterazines

The ritterazine class of steroidal alkaloids comprises 26 compounds (672–697), all of which were found in the lipophilic extract of the tunicate Ritterella tokioka collected off the Izu Peninsula by Fusetani and colleagues (Table 17). They are spiroketal-containing steroidal heterodimers (Fig. 19). Ritterazines and cephalostatins share common structural features, in which two highly oxygenated hexacyclic steroidal units are fused via a pyrazine ring at C-2 and C-3 and both side chains of the steroidal units form either [4.4] or [4.5] spiroketals [20].

Table 17

Structures and sources of ritterazines 672–697

No	Compounds	Substitution groups and others	Sources	References
672	Ritterazine A	R1 = R2 = OH	Ritterella tokioka	[332]
673	Ritterazine T	R1 = R2 = H	R. tokioka	[333]
674	Ritterazine B		R. tokioka	[328, 329]
675	Ritterazine C		R. tokioka	[328]
676	Ritterazine D	R = H	R. tokioka	[330]
677	Ritterazine E	R = CH3	R. tokioka	[330]
678	Ritterazine F	R = β-OH	R. tokioka	[330]
679	Ritterazine H	R = O	R. tokioka	[330]
680	Ritterazine G	R1 = R2 = β-OH; R3 = α-OH; △14,15	R. tokioka	[330]
681	Ritterazine I	R1 = β-OH; R2 = O; R3 = α-OH	R. tokioka	[330]
682	Ritterazine Y	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = β-OH	R. tokioka	[333]
683	Ritterazine J	R1 = R3 = OH; R2 = β-OH	R. tokioka	[330]
684	Ritterazine K	R1 = H; R2 = β-OH; R3 = OH	R. tokioka	[330]
685	Ritterazine L	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = β-OH	R. tokioka	[330]
686	Ritterazine M	R1 = R3 = H; R2 = α-OH	R. tokioka	[330, 331]
687	Ritterazine N		R. tokioka	[333]
688	Ritterazine O		R. tokioka	[333]
689	Ritterazine P		R. tokioka	[333]
690	Ritterazine Q		R. tokioka	[333]
691	Ritterazine R		R. tokioka	[333]
692	Ritterazine S		R. tokioka	[333]
693	Ritterazine U		R. tokioka	[333]
694	Ritterazine V		R. tokioka	[333]
695	Ritterazine W		R. tokioka	[333]
696	Ritterazine X		R. tokioka	[333]
697	Ritterazine Z		R. tokioka	[333]

Fig. 19

Structures of ritterazines 672–697

The hydroxyl groups of cephalostatins at C-12, C-17, C-23, and C-26 are more oxygenated in the right side hemispheres than in ritterazines, which is hydroxylated only at C-12, while the left side hemisphere ritterazines are more oxygenated, with C-7′, C-12′, C-17′ and C-25′ being hydroxylated. All cephalostatins contain β-hydroxyl oxygen substituents at the C-12 position, while some ritterazines bear carbonyl groups at this position. In the original paper, the configuration of ritterazine B (674) at the spiro carbon atom was mistaken for the same as in cephalostatin 1 in 1995 [328]. However, this has been recently revised by Phillips and Shair, who synthesized the right half of ritterazine B in 2007 [329]. Ritterazines J–M (683–686), exhibited the presence of the [4.5] spiroketal system on both sides of the alkaloid molecule, but only one of them, ritterazine K (684), was symmetrical [330]. In the original paper ritterazine M (686) was erroneously assigned as the S configuration at C-22, along with an incorrect configuration at C-12 [330]. A chemical synthesis of this compound by Fuchs et al. allowed correcting the structure [331]. Ritterazines A (672), T (673), D (676), E (677), N (687), O (688), U-X (693–696), and Z (697) have a unique five-membered C ring on their right side, which is a rearranged steroid nucleus, the same as Veratrum alkaloids. Structural abbreviations used in this review are illustrated in Fig. 20.

Fig. 20

Structural abbreviations used in this review

Biological activities

Anticancer effects

Most steroidal alkaloids showed anticancer activity as cytotoxicity with the IC50 values listed in Table 18. Among the seven human cancer cell lines SMMC-772, A-549, SK-BR-3, PANC-1, K562, SGC7901 and HL-60, the most sensitive cell line according to sarcovagine D (116) was SK-BR-3, which had an IC50 value of 2.25 μM. [79]. Holamine (145) and funtumine (154) exhibited anticancer activity against human colon adenocarcinoma (HT-29) with IC50 values of 31.06 and 22.36 μM, respectively. The study demonstrated that 145 and 154 induced cytotoxicity through the induction of apoptosis in HeLa, MCF-7, and HT-29 cancer cells [83]. Then, they induced apoptosis through the elevation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial function modulation, the perturbation of F-actin polymerization, and caspase-3 induction, which were all more prominent in HeLa cells [334].

Table 18

Cytotoxic activity of steroidal alkaloids against tumor cell lines

Compounds	Cells	Activity	References
Mokluangin A (10)	Small cell lung cancer (NCI-H187)	IC50 = 30.6 μM	[41]
Irehline (36)	NCI-H187	IC50 = 27.7 μM	[41]
3-Epi-gitingensine (38)	Oral epidermoid carcinoma (KB)	IC50 = 21.2 μM	[42]
Paravallarine (39)	KB	IC50 = 12.8 μM	[42]
Pachysamine E (57)	Mouse lymphoid neoplasm (P388)	IC50 = 0.46 μg/mL	[54]
	Parental and the Adriamycin (doxorubicin)-resistant subline of mouse leukemia (P388/ADM)	IC50 = 0.45 μg/mL	[54]
Hookerianine A (61)	Colon cancer (SW480)	IC50 = 10.97 ± 1.36 μM	[56]
	Human prostate cancer (PC3)	IC50 = 32.97 ± 3.78 μM	[56]
	Breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7)	IC50 = 37.70 ± 0.99 μM	[56]
	Human myelogenous leukemia (K562)	IC50 = 11.86 ± 0.82 μM	[56]
Vaganine A (82)	Breast cancer (MB-MDA-231)	IC50 = 0.18 μM	[82]
Epipachysamine D (87)	Human myeloid leukemia (HL-60)	IC50 = 2.96 μM; IC50 = 2.87 μM	[75, 79]
	Breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7)	IC50 = 28.92 ± 1.22 μM	[56]
Epipachysamine E (91)	Human melanoma (B16)	IC50 = 2.5 μg/mL	[54]
	Shionogi carcinoma (SC115)	IC50 = 3.4 μg/mL	[54]
	Mouse lymphoid neoplasm (P388)	IC50 = 0.56 μg/mL	[54]
	Parental and the adriamycin (doxorubicin)-resistant subline of mouse leukemia (P388/ADM)	IC50 = 0.66 μg/mL	[54]
Sarcovagine D (116)	Hepatocellular carcinoma (SMMC-7721)	IC50 = 16.69 μM	[75]
	Lung cancer (A-549)	IC50 = 11.17 μM	[75]
	Breast cancer (SK-BR-3)	IC50 = 4.17 μM; IC50 = 2.25 μM	[75, 79]
	Pancreatic cancer (PANC-1)	IC50 = 10.76 μM; IC50 = 2.70 μM	[75, 79]
	Human myeloid leukemia (K562)	IC50 = 3.53 μM	[79]
	Gastric carcinoma (SGC7901)	IC50 = 4.87 μM	[79]
Sarsaligenine A (128)	Human myeloid leukemia (HL-60)	IC50 = 2.87 μM	[79]
	Human myeloid leukemia (K562)	IC50 = 8.48 μM	[79]
	Gastric carcinoma (SGC7901)	IC50 = 29.94 μM	[79]
	Breast cancer (SK-BR-3)	IC50 = 10.14 μM	[79]
	Pancreatic cancer (PANC-1)	IC50 = 12.34 μM	[79]
Sarsaligenine B (129)	Human myeloid leukemia (HL-60)	IC50 = 3.61 μM	[79]
	Human myeloid leukemia (K562)	IC50 = 17.10 μM	[79]
	Gastric carcinoma (SGC7901)	IC50 = 21.53 μM	[79]
	Breast cancer (SK-BR-3)	IC50 = 17.89 μM	[79]
	Pancreatic cancer (PANC-1)	IC50 = 32.84 μM	[79]
Holamine (145)	Human myeloid leukemia (HL-60)	IC50 = 24.22 μM	[75]
	Human colon adenocarcinoma (HT-29)	IC50 = 31.06 μM	[83]
	Human cervical cancer (HeLa)	IC50 = 51.42 μM	[83]
	Human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7)	IC50 = 42.82 μM	[83]
	Non-cancerous human fibroblast (KMST-6)	IC50 = 102.95 μM	[83]
Pachysanonin (149)	Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC)	IC50 = 2.0 ± 0.3 μg/mL	[83]
Funtumine (154)	Human colon adenocarcinoma (HT-29)	IC50 = 22.36 μM	[83]
	Human cervical cancer (HeLa)	IC50 = 46.17 μM	[83]
	Human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7)	IC50 = 52.69 μM	[83]
	Non-cancerous human fibroblast (KMST-6)	IC50 = 85.45 μM	[83]
Pachystermine A (157)	Human melanoma (B16)	IC50 = 6.3 μg/mL	[54]
	Breast cancer (MB-MDA-231)	IC50 = 0.32 μM	[82]
Terminamine A (159)	MB-MDA-231	IC50 = 0.18 μM	[82]
Terminamine B (160)	MB-MDA-231	IC50 = 0.20 μM	[82]
Terminamine C (161)	MB-MDA-231	IC50 = 0.08 μM	[82]
Terminamine D (163)	MB-MDA-231	IC50 = 0.20 μM	[82]
Terminamine E (164)	MB-MDA-231	IC50 = 0.07 μM	[82]
Hookerianine B (171)	Colon cancer (SW480)	IC50 = 5.97 ± 0.13 μM	[56]
	Human hepatocarcinoma (SMMC-7721)	IC50 = 16.19 ± 0.56 μM	[56]
	Human prostate cancer (PC3)	IC50 = 11.57 ± 0.86 μM	[56]
	Breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7)	IC50 = 19.44 ± 1.70 μM	[56]
	Human myelogenous leukemia (K562)	IC50 = 7.95 ± 0.02 μM	[56]
Veratramine (392)	Lung cancer (A549)	IC50 = 8.9 μmol/L	[185]
	Pancreatic cancer (PANC-1)	IC50 = 14.5 μmol/L	[185]
	Hh-dependent (SW1990)	IC50 = 26.1 μmol/L	[185]
	Hh-dependent (NCI-H249)	IC50 = 8.5 μmol/L	[185]
	Human glioma (SF188)	IC50 = 97.8 μmol/L	[198]
Germine (358)	Hh-dependent (SW1990)	IC50 = 47.2 μmol/L	[185]
	Hh-dependent (NCI-H249)	IC50 = 24.1 μmol/L	[185]
Cyclopamine (432)	Lung cancer (A549)	IC50 = 14.4 μmol/L	[185]
	pancreatic cancer (PANC-1)	IC50 = 29.3 μmol/L	[185]
	Hh-dependent (SW1990)	IC50 = 48.6 μmol/L	[185]
	Hh-dependent (NCI-H249)	IC50 = 4.4 μmol/L	[185]
	Human pancreatic adenocarcinoma (HPAF-2)	IC50 = 8.79 ± 0.94 μM	[335]
	Human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell line Panc 10.05	IC50 = 11.33 ± 0.41 μM	[335]
	Human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell line Panc 8.13	IC50 = 14.49 ± 0.85 μM	[335]
	Human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell line Panc 2.03	IC50 = 16.57 ± 0.27 μM	[335]
	Human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell line AsPC-1	IC50 = 16.74 ± 1.30 μM	[335]
	Human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell line CFPAC-1	IC50 = 19.59 ± 0.32 μM	[335]
	Human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell line BxPC-3	IC50 = 36.17 ± 0.31 μM	[335]
	Human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell line S2013	IC50 = 45.09 ± 1.27 μM	[335]
α-Tomatine (459)	Breast cancer (MDA-MB-231)	IC50 = 26.4 ± 3.6 μg/mL	[348]
	Gastric adenocarcinoma (KATO-III)	IC50 = 16.4 ± 10.0 μg/mL	[348]
	Prostate cancer (PC3)	IC50 = 3.0 ± 0.3 μg/mL	[348]
α-Solamargine (500)	Human adenocarcinoma (H441)	IC50 = 3.0 μM	[345]
	Squamous cell lung carcinoma (H520)	IC50 = 6.7 μM	[345]
	Large cell lung cancer (H661)	IC50 = 7.2 μM	[345]
	Small cell lung cancer (H69)	IC50 = 5.8 μM	[345]
	Cervical carcinoma (HeLa)	IC50 = 6.0 μM	[346]
	Lung cancer (A549)	IC50 = 8.0 μM	[346]
	Breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7)	IC50 = 2.1 μM	[346]
	Human myelogenous leukemia (K562)	IC50 = 5.2 μM	[346]
	Colon cancer cell line (HCT116)	IC50 = 3.8 μM	[346]
	Human primary glioblastoma (U87)	IC50 = 3.2 μM	[346]
	Liver cancer (HepG2)	IC50 = 2.5 μM	[346]
α-Solanine (528)	HepG2	IC50 = 14.47 μg/mL	[255]
Plakinamine H (625)	Rat glioma (C6)	IC50 = 9.0 μg/mL	[306]
Plakinamine G (630)	C6	IC50 = 6.8 μg/Ml	[306]
Tetrahydroplakinamine A (631)	C6	IC50 = 1.4 μg/mL	[306]
Dihydroplakinamine K (632)	Human colon tumor (HCT-116)	IC50 = 1.4 μM	[307]
Plakinamine I (633)	HCT-116	IC50 = 5.2 μM	[307]
Plakinamine J (634)	HCT-116	IC50 = 10.6 μM	[307]
Plakinamine K (635)	HCT-116	IC50 = 6.1 μM	[307]
Cephalostatin 1 (652)	Pancreas adenocarcinoma (BXPC-3)	GI50 = 0.044 nM	[326]
	Breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7)	GI50 = 0.099 nM	[326]
	Glioblastoma (SF-268)	GI50 = 1.60 nM	[326]
	Human lung large cell carcinoma (NCI-H460)	GI50 = 0.044 nM	[326]
	Colon carcinoma (KM20L2)	GI50 = 0.066 nM	[326]
	Human prostate adenocarcinoma (DU-145)	GI50 = 0.11 nM	[326]
Cephalostatin 2 (653)	Pancreas adenocarcinoma (BXPC-3)	GI50 = 0.022 nM	[326]
	Breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7)	GI50 = 0.022 nM	[326]
	Glioblastoma cells (SF-268)	GI50 = 0.12 nM	[326]
	Human lung large cell carcinoma (NCI-H460)	GI50 = 0.0056 nM	[326]
	Colon carcinoma (KM20L2)	GI50 = 0.0060 nM	[326]
	Human prostate adenocarcinoma (DU-145)	GI50 = 0.11 nM	[326]
Cephalostatin 9 (664)	Pancreas adenocarcinoma (BXPC-3)	GI50 = 14 nM	[326]
	Breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7)	GI50 = 110 nM	[326]
	Glioblastoma (SF-268)	GI50 = 150 nM	[326]
	Human lung large cell carcinoma (NCI-H460)	GI50 = 39 nM	[326]
	Colon carcinoma (KM20L2)	GI50 = 58 nM	[326]
Cephalostatin 20 (665)	Pancreas adenocarcinoma (BXPC-3)	GI50 = 16 nM	[326]
	Breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7)	GI50 = 22 nM	[326]
	Glioblastoma (SF-268)	GI50 = 36 nM	[326]
	Human lung large cell carcinoma (NCI-H460)	GI50 = 6.00 nM	[326]
	Colon carcinoma (KM20L2)	GI50 = 7.20 nM	[326]
	Human prostate adenocarcinoma (DU-145)	GI50 = 210 nM	[326]
Ritterazine A (672)	Murine leukemia (P388)	IC50 = 0.0035 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine T (673)	P388	IC50 = 0.46 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine B (674)	P388	IC50 = 0.00015 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine C (675)	P388	IC50 = 0.092 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine D (676)	P388	IC50 = 0.016 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine E (677)	P388	IC50 = 0.0035 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine F (678)	P388	IC50 = 0.00073 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine H (679)	P388	IC50 = 0.016 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine G (680)	P388	IC50 = 0.00073 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine I (681)	P388	IC50 = 0.014 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine Y (682)	P388	IC50 = 0.0035 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine J (683)	P388	IC50 = 0.013 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine K (684)	P388	IC50 = 0.0095 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine L (685)	P388	IC50 = 0.010 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine M (686)	P388	IC50 = 0.015 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine N (687)	P388	IC50 = 0.46 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine O (688)	P388	IC50 = 2.1 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine P (689)	P388	IC50 = 0.71 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine Q (690)	P388	IC50 = 0.57 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine R (691)	P388	IC50 = 2.1 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine S (692)	P388	IC50 = 0.46 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine U (693)	P388	IC50 = 2.1 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine V (694)	P388	IC50 = 2.1 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine W (695)	P388	IC50 = 3.2 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine X (696)	P388	IC50 = 3.0 μg/mL	[333]
Ritterazine Z (697)	P388	IC50 = 2.0 μg/mL	[333]

Cyclopamine (432), a Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway antagonist, was first identified as a potent teratogen in animals. Among the nine human pancreatic cell lines examined, the IC50 values of cyclopamine ranged from 8.79 to more than 30 µM [335]. In addition, 432 also showed prominent anticancer effects, including small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) [336], oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) [337], breast cancer [338], pancreatic cancer [339], hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) [340] and human erythroleukemia cells [341]. Furthermore, 432 induced apoptosis in HCC cells through inhibition of the Sonic Hh signaling pathway by downregulating Bcl-2 [340]. In addition, 432 could induce apoptosis and upregulate cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression which plays a crucial role in the proliferation and differentiation of leukemia cells [341].

Tomatidine (458) and solasodine (513), important alkaloids found in a large number of Solanum species, exerted cytotoxic activity against HBL-100 cells [342]. They had a weak inhibitory effect on MCF-7, HT-29 and HeLa cells by blocking the cell cycle in the G0/G1 phase [343]. α-Solamargine (500) and α-solasonine (501), the two glycosides of 513, differed only in their carbohydrate moieties, which are used in the treatment of keratoses, basal cell carcinomas, and squamous cell carcinomas [344]. Moreover, 500 was significantly cytotoxic to the human tumor cell lines H441, H520, H661, H69, HeLa, A549, MCF-7, K562, HCT116, U87 and HepG2 with IC50 values from 2.1 to 8.0 μM [345, 346]. The cellular and molecular mechanism of 500 anti-human breast cancer cells HBL-100, ZR-75-1 and SK-BR-3 were investigated, and it was concluded that this compound could activate apoptotic proteins and inhibite anti-apoptotic, so it has great potential as an anti-human breast cancer candidate drug [347]. The target of α-solanine (528) inducing apoptosis in HepG2 cells seemed to be mediated by the inhibition of the expression of Bcl-2 protein [255].

Cephalostatin 1–20 (652–671) were significantly cytotoxic to the human tumor cell lines BXPC-3, MCF-7, SF-268, NCI-H460, KM20L2 and DU-145. Of these compounds, cephalostatin 2 (653) was the most active compound, with GI50 (growth inhibition of 50%) values in the range of 0.0056–0.11 nM. Importantly, compared with the cephalostatins 9 (664) and 20 (665), the inhibitory effects of 653 and cephalostatin 1 (652) were significantly increased by 100–1000 times. From this evidence, it was clear that the spirostanol structure must be intact and was the critical center for antineoplastic activities. The opening of the left-side spiro-ring significantly reduced the inhibition of these carcinoma cells. A significant contribution of the presence of a hydroxy group at C-8′ to antineoplastic potency was evident by comparing the activity of cephalostatins 2 (653) and 1 (652), which was further supported by the cancer growth inhibitory activity of cephalostatins 20 (665) and 9 (664). Compounds 653 and 665, in which the hydroxy substitution at C-8′, had considerably increased activity compared with compounds 652 and 664, respectively [326].

Ritterazines A–Z (672–697) were all significantly cytotoxic to the human tumor cell lines of P388 murine leukemia cells. Of these compounds, ritterazine B (674) was the most active with an IC50 value of 0.00015 μg/mL. The presence of both the terminal 5/6 spiroketal and the hydroxyl groups was found to be especially important for pronounced inhibition of P388 cells. Ritterazines B (674) and F (678), which have terminal 5/6 spiroketal, showed high cytotoxicity against P388 cells, whereas ritterazine C, possessing 5/5 spiroketal structure, showed a lower significant level of cytotoxicity [333].

Anticholinergic effects

Some pregnane and cyclopregnane type alkaloids are distributed in many genera of Apocynaceae and display significant anticholinergic activity. Cholinesterase (ChE), divided into two enzymes acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinestarase (BChE), have been identified as potential targets in the treatment of AD, myasthenia gravis and glaucoma. The IC50 values of AChE and BchE inhibited by most steroidal alkaloids are listed in Table 19.

Table 19

Cholinesterase-inhibiting activities of steroidal alkaloids

Compounds	IC50/μM		References
	AChE	BChE
Salonine B (47)	n.a	4.5	[50]
2-Hydroxysalignamine (49)	82.5	20.9	[51]
N-[Formyl(methyl)amino]salonine B (50)	48.6	10.5	[51]
Sarsalignone (64)	7	2.2	[68]
Sarsaligenone (65)	5.8	4.3	[70]
Alkaloid C (71)	48.6	10.5	[50]
Salignarine F (72)	30.2	1.9	[51]
Saracosine (73)	20	3.8	[51]
Sarcodinine (74)	40	12.5	[51]
Sarcovagine C (80)	8	0.3	[74]
Vaganine A (82)	8.6	2.3	[70]
Sarcorine (83)	70	10.3	[70]
Saligcinnamide (85)	20	4.8	[70]
Na-Methyl epipachysamine D (86)	10.1	3.2	[71]
Epipachysamine D (87)	28.9	2.8	[51]
Salignenamide A (88)	50.6	4.6	[70]
Iso-N-Formylchonemorphine (90)	6.3	4.07	[51]
Saligenamide C (93)	61.3	38.3	[70]
Saligenamide F (94)	6.3	4.1	[70]
2β-Hydroxyepipachysamine D (95)	78.2	28.9	[70]
Axillarine C (96)	227.9	18	[70]
Axillarine F (97)	182.4	18.2	[70]
Salonine A (98)	33.4	32.7	[50]
Dictyophlebine (99)	6.2	3.6	[51]
Hookerianamine A (100)	18.9	0.9	[71]
Isosarcodine (101)	10.3	1.9	[72]
Hookerianamide B (102)	26.4	0.7	[71]
Hookerianamide C (103)	23.2	0.6	[71]
Hookerianamide E (105)	15.9	6	[73]
Hookerianamide G (106)	11.4	1.5	[73]
Hookerianamide I (107)	34.1	0.3	[74]
Sarcovagine D (116)	2.2	2.3	[71]
Sarcovagenine C (117)	1.5	0.7	[71]
Axillaridine A (118)	5.21	2.5	[70]
2,3-Dehydrosarsalignone (119)	7	32.3	[61]
Phulchowkiamide A (121)	0.5	0.4	[71]
Hookerianamide F (122)	1.6	7.2	[73]
Hookerianamide H (123)	2.9	1.9	[74]
(−)-Vaganine D (133)	46.9	10	[80]
5,6-Dihydrosarconidine (135)	20.3	1.9	[51]
16-Dehydrosarcorine (136)	12.5	3.9	[61]
Hookerianamide A (137)	82.7	200	[71]
Saligenamide D (140)	185.2	23.7	[70]
2-Hydroxysalignarine E (141)	16	6.9	[51]
Salonine C (142)	7.8	32.3	[51]
Buxasamarine (196)	25.4	0.7	[100]
Cycloprotobuxine C (201)	38.8	2.7	[100]
Cyclovirobuxeine A (202)	105.7	2	[100]
(+)-Benzoylbuxidienine (238)	35	No	[111]
Hyrcatrienine (257)	No	1.7	[93]
Hyrcanone (273)	145	20	[93]
(+)-O6-Buxafurandiene (283)	17	No	[111]
(+)-7-Deoxy-O6-buxafurandiene (284)	13	No	[111]
Impericine (312)	67.97 ± 2.46	1.607	[139]
Forticine (313)	> 500	100.5 ± 0.445	[139]
Delavine (325)	105.5 ± 1.45	1.706 ± 0.11	[139]
Persicanidine A (345)	352.2 ± 4.03	4.245 ± 0.079	[139]

n.t. not tested, n.a. not active

Phulchowkiamide A (121), containing a carbonyl group at C-4 along with the tigloylamino moiety at position C-3, was found to be the most potent inhibitor of AChE and BChE among these alkaloids with IC50 values of 0.5 and 0.4 μM, respectively [71]. Similarly, compounds such as sarsalignone (64) [68], sarsaligenone (65) [70], sarcovagine D (116), sarcovagenine C (117) [71], and hookerianamide F (122) [73], which have in common with 121, displayed higher inhibitory activity than other compounds. In general, the α,β-unsaturated carbonyl group and tigloylamino moiety might be considered to be important factors to increase the activity.

From the list, we found that some alkaloids, including axillarine C (96), hookerianamide B (102), hookerianamide C (103), saligenamide D (140), cyclovirobuxeine A (202), hyrcanone (273), impericine (312), delavine (325), and persicanidine A (345), appeared to be more selective inhibitors of BChE. The presence of a C-2β hydroxy group, as in 2-hydroxysalignamine (49), saligenamide C (93), axillarine C (96), axillarine F (97), salonine A (98), and hookerianamide A (137) caused a negative effect on the inhibitory activity towards both AChE and BChE. In general, pregnane alkaloids were more selective than cyclopregnane alkaloids towards AChE and BChE. This might be due to the effect of the C-4 methyl groups and the cyclopropane ring in cyclopregnane alkaloids that decreased the activity.

Antimicrobial effects

Steroidal alkaloids are considered a part of plant chemical defenses against various pathogens, namely, fungi, bacteria, and viruses. Epipachysamine-E-5-ene-4-one (66) and iso-N-formylchonemorphine (90) showed strong antibacterial activity against a wide range of pathogenic bacteria (Bacillus cereus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudom aeruginosa) with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 0.0312–0.2500 (mg/mL), compared with the widely used antibiotics amoxicillin and ampicillin (0.0625–0.2500 mg/mL) [59]. The five pregnane alkaloids sarcovagine C (80), hookerianamide I (107), chonemorphine (108), N-methypachysamine A (109) and hookerianamide H (123), were all active in antibacterial properties against Bacillus subtilis with MIC values of lower than 20 μg/mL, and most of them displayed moderate to good antibacterial activities against Micrococcus luteus, Streptococcus faecalis, and Pseudomonas pallida [349]. As saligcinnamide (85), Na-methyl epipachysamine D (86) and epipachysamine D (87) had the same skeleton, and possessed potent antibacterial activity against seven human pathogenic bacteria with inhibition zones ranging from 6 to 12 mm [67].

(+)-16α,31-Diacetylbuxadine (278) exhibited significant antibacterial activity with zones of inhibition (ZI) of 14–19 mm against K. pneumoniae and Salmonella typhi and moderate to weak activity (ZI = 4–12 mm) against other seven human pathogenic bacterias [92]. Neoverataline A (379), neoverataline B (380), stenophylline B (564), veramiline-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (566) and jervine (427) were tested for antifungal properties against the phytopathogens Phytophthora capisis and Rhizoctonia cerealis, among which 380, 564 and 566 displayed strong activity against P. capisis with MICs at 120, 80 and 80 μg/mL, respectively. The MIC of triadimefon, a positive control, against P. capisis was 80 μg/mL [125].

Tomatidine (458) potentiated the action of several aminoglycoside antibiotics (gentamicin, kanamycin, tobramycin, amikacin and streptomycin) against S. aureus, and the synergy between 458 and aminoglycosides could help reduce the incidence of resistance. Furthermore, 458 affected the haemolytic ability of S. aureus and repressed several agr-regulated virulence factors [350]. α-Chaconine (527), α-solanine (528), α-solamargine (500), α-solasonine (501), and α-tomatine (459) showed antimalarial activity, among which the most active compound 527 had no additive effect with 528. When orally administered at 7.5 mg/kg/day for 4 days, 527 suppressed the parasitemia level by 71.38% [351]. Among the four mycobacterial species, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium intracellulare and Mycobacterium simiae, plakinamine P (640) exhibited the strongest antibacterial effect against M. tuberculosis, giving a MIC of 1.8 μg/mL [313].

Anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects

Solasodine (513) significantly reduced the inflammatory reaction to carrageenan-induced rat paw oedema from 19.5 to 56.4% [352]. In addition, the antinociceptive activity of 513 was evaluated by a hot plate, formalin, and writhing tests. 513 caused a significant decrease in nociception at a dose of 8 mg/kg in acetic acid-induced mice abdominal constrictions, with a maximum inhibition of 61%, compared to indomethacin (74%). It could also significantly reduce the painful sensation caused by formalin and produce a significant increase in the pain threshold in the hot plate test. Overall, the results suggested that 513 may possess analgesic activity through both central and peripheral mechanisms [353].

The data provided by Chiu et al. suggested that tomatidine (458) inhibited NF-κB nuclear translocation and c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation, thereby decreasing the expression of COX-2 and inducible cytotoxic nitric oxide (NO) synthase, which might be beneficial for anti-inflammatory therapy. They also found 458 had a better anti-inflammatory effect than solasodine (513) in Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages [354].

α-Chaconine (527) and solanidine (535) were responsible for the anti-inflammatory effect, which was dependent on reducing the production of interleukin-2 and interleukin-8 induced by canidin A in Jurkat cells, and the induced NO production by LPS stimulated macrophages [355].

Anti-myocardial ischemia effects

Buxus microphylla is often used to treat cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases as a folk medicine in China. Cyclovirobuxine D (203) was the most potent component contributing to the anti-myocardial ischemia effects of the “huangyangning” tablet. This Chinese drug is used to treat cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases and has been developed successfully for more than 10 years in China. In the myocardial ischemia model induced by isoprenaline or pituitrin, 1.1 and 2.2 mg/kg cyclovirobuxine D could improve model rat plasma superoxide dismutase (SOD) activation, and reduce the plasma MDA, LDH, and phosphocreatine kinase (CPK) contents of model rats [356]. The main mechanism of 203 in treating acute myocardial ischemia may be attributed to inhibiting blood stasis and thrombosis, enhancing NO release, and opening KATP channels [357]. In addition, data from a study of rats with congestive heart failure showed significant benefits after oral administration of 203, indicating that it may be a promising and useful drug in the treatment of cardiac dysfunction [358].

Anti-giogenesis effects

Cortistatins, novel steroidal alkaloids extracted from Corticium sponge, showed highly selective anti-proliferative activity against human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), which inhibited the formation of original capillaries, a process known as angiogenesis [314]. Among the eleven cortistatins A–J (641−651), cortistatins A (641) and J (651) showed the most strongest anti-proliferative action against HUVECs with IC50 values of 1.8 and 8 nM, which were 3000 and 300–1100 times more selective than normal human dermalfibroblast (NHDF) and tumor cell murine neuroblastoma cells (Neuro2A), respectively. [315].

Others

Among the four conanine-type alkaloids, conessine (1), conimin (9), mokluangin A (10), and irehline (36), 36 showed the most effective antimalarial activity (IC50 = 1.2 μM) against Plasmodium falciparum, comparable to that of the positive control dihydroartemisinine with an IC50 of 3.7 nM [41].

The anti-tussive activity of three steroidal alkaloids was also investigated. yibeinone C (347), imperialine (335), yibeinone B (402), and showed an apparent concentration-dependent relaxation of isolated tracheal preparation, amongst 347 and 335 showed significant effects with pA2 values of 6.19 and 8.41, and EC50 values of 0.65 μmol/L and 4.40 nmol/L, respectively [156].

The five steroidal alkaloids puqienine A (400), puqienine B (401), puqietinone (577), N-demethylpuqietinone (579), and puqietinonoside (580) could significantly prolong the latent period and reduce the number of coughs in ammonia-induced mouse cough models at doses of 5 and 10 mg/kg, confirming their antitussive activity compared to the positive control codeine. The presence of these compounds may be responsible for the traditional use of Fritillaria puqiensis in cough remedies [188].

Plakinamines J (634), N (636), and O (637), containing a substituted pyrrolidine ring, showed potent antiproliferative activity against seven human colon carcinoma cell lines with mean GI50 values of 11.5, 2.4 and 1.4 μM, respectively, whereas plakinamine I (633) with the pyrrolidine nitrogen formed an additional fused piperidine ring system that exhibited relatively weak activity [311].

Toxicity

Jervine (427) and cyclopamine (432), veratrum alkaloids isolated from Veratrum californicum, had prominent teratogenic activity to produce synophthalmia and related cephalic malformations in sheep, cattle, goats and rabbits [359, 360]. In addition, the presence of C-5, C-6 olefinic linkages in the framework of jervanes was found to be a critical structural factor to enhance teratogenicity induction [361].

In both pregnant and nonpregnant mice, tomatidine (458), solasodine (513), and solanidine (535) induced an increase in liver weight after being fed a diet containing 2.4 mmol/kg of these aglycones for 14 days [362].

In terms of the LC50 and EC50 after 96 h of exposure, α-chaconine (527) was teratogenic and more embryotoxic than α-solanine (528) in frogs. The carbohydrate side chain attached to the 3-OH group of solanidine (535), the only difference between these two compounds, appeared to be an important factor in governing teratogenicity [363].

A pathophysiological study showed that isorubijervine (543) and rubijervine (544) were highly toxic compounds with LD50 values of 1.14 and 1.77 mg/kg in mice, respectively. They also exerted the strongest ability to inhibit the sodium channel NaV1.5, which plays an essential role in cardiac physiological function [263].

Summary

Natural steroidal alkaloids with diverse bioactivities and high toxicity keep them one of the highlighted types of natural products. In this review, the structural diversity and biological activities of 697 natural steroidal alkaloids have been summarized and it is likely that many more steroidal alkaloids with novel structures will be discovered, especially rings E and F. Additionally, the high medicinal potential of cyclovirobuxine D, cyclopamine, α-solamargine, α-solasonine, cephalostatin 1 and many other members of this intriguing family of natural products is far from being exploited. Therefore, future research in this field will further contribute to understanding their full potential in drug development.