Pro-Angiogenic Effects of Essential Oil from Perilla frutescens and Its Main Component (Perillaldehyde) on Zebrafish Embryos and Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells.

PURPOSE: Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt., a traditional edible-medicinal herb in China, has been used to treat cardiovascular and cerebrovascular (cardio-cerebrovascular) diseases for thousands of years. However, knowledge of the mechanisms underlying the effects of essential oil from P. frutescens (EOPF) in the treatment of cardio-cerebrovascular diseases is lacking. The promotion of angiogenesis is beneficial in the treatment of ischemic cardio-cerebrovascular diseases. The current study investigated the pro-angiogenic role of EOPF and its main component perillaldehyde in sunitinib-injured transgenic Tg (flk1:EGFP) zebrafish embryos and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) for the first time.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: The pro-angiogenic effects of EOPF and perillaldehyde were observed in vivo using transgenic Tg (flk1:EGFP) zebrafish embryos and in vitro using HUVECs. Cell viability, proliferation, migration, tube formation, and protein levels were detected by MTT, EdU staining, wound healing, transwell chamber, and Western blot assays, respectively.
RESULTS: EOPF and perillaldehyde exerted a significant stimulatory effect on the formation of zebrafish intersegmental vessels (ISVs). Moreover, EOPF and perillaldehyde promoted proliferation, migration, and tube formation in sunitinib-treated HUVECs. Additionally, our findings uncovered that the pro-angiogenic effects of EOPF and perillaldehyde were mediated by increases in the expression ratios of p-ERK1/2 to ERK1/2 and Bcl-2 to Bax.
CONCLUSION: The present study is the first report to provide clear evidence that EOPF and perillaldehyde promote angiogenesis by stimulating repair of sunitinib-injured ISVs in zebrafish embryos and promoting proliferation, migration, and tube formation in sunitinib-injured HUVECs. The underlying mechanisms are related to increased p-ERK1/2 to ERK1/2 and Bcl-2 to Bax expression ratios. EOPF and perillaldehyde may be used in the treatment of cardio-cerebrovascular diseases, which is consistent with the traditional application of P. frutescens.

Introduction

Ischemic cardiovascular and cerebrovascular (cardio-cerebrovascular) diseases threaten human health worldwide because of their high prevalence and burden of disability.1–3 From the perspective of traditional Chinese medicine, the pathogenesis of ischemic cardio-cerebrovascular diseases (eg, myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke) lies in the vessel stasis resulting in poor blood flow.4 Angiogenesis is the formation process of new blood vessels from existing capillaries or posterior capillary veins, which plays a crucial role in the reconstruction of the vascular system and the establishment of collateral circulation.5,6 The promotion of angiogenesis contributes to the treatment of cardio-cerebrovascular diseases.7,8

Perilla (Labiatae) is an aromatic plant widely distributed in Asia. More than 270 natural molecules, including essential oils, phenolic acids, triterpenes, tocopherols, carotenoids, flavonoids, phytosterols, fatty acids, and policosanols, have been identified in Perilla species.9 Perilla frutescens (Zisu in Chinese) is a traditional edible-medicinal herb that has been used in China for thousands of years.9 According to the Chinese Pharmacopeia, the leaves, seeds, and stems of P. frutescens have different therapeutic applications.10 A growing body of evidence indicates that P. frutescens has protective effects on cardio-cerebrovascular diseases.11,12 Our prior study has indicated that the essential oil of P. frutescens (EOPF) is the main active constituent of P. frutescens leaves, and perillaldehyde is the most abundant component in EOPF.13 A large number of experiments revealed that the essential oils from traditional Chinese medicines exert positive effects in the treatment of cardio-cerebrovascular diseases.14,15 However, the pharmacological activities of EOPF have been studied in regard to its antibacterial activity,16 anti-inflammatory activity,17 and anti-oxidant activity.18 Few studies have examined the protective activities of EOPF against cardio-cerebrovascular diseases.

Zebrafish has become one of the most popular animal models to study diseases because of the advantages of high genetic similarity to human, rapid development, transparent embryos, genetic stability, and low dosages.19,20 Because of the expression of enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) in endothelial cells (ECs), transgenic Tg (flk1:EGFP) zebrafish has been widely used for angiogenesis research of traditional Chinese medicines.21,22 In addition, human umbilical vein ECs (HUVECs) are widely used in angiogenesis research based on their unique superior properties, including low immunogenicity, their stem cell potential, and late endothelial progenitor cell characteristics.23,24

The current study investigated the potential pro-angiogenic activity of EOPF and perillaldehyde using sunitinib-injured transgenic Tg (flk1:EGFP) zebrafish embryos and HUVECs. It has been shown that the ERK1/2, Bcl-2, and Bax proteins play vital roles in regulating angiogenesis.25,26 In the current study, we further explored whether these effects could be mediated by the expression levels of ERK1/2, Bcl-2, and Bax.

Materials and Methods

Drugs and Reagents

Perillaldehyde (purity > 98%, Lot: 253466) was obtained from Chengdu Huaxia Chemical Reagent Co. Ltd. (Chengdu, China). Sunitinib was purchased from J&K Scientific Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China). Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle’s Medium (DMEM) was purchased from GIBCO BRL (Grand Island, NY, USA). Fetal bovine serum (FBS) was purchased from Cao Yuan Lv Ye Bio-engineering Materials Co., Ltd. (Hohhot, China). Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium (MTT) were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). 5-Ethynyl-2ʹ-deoxyuridine (EdU) and 4ʹ,6-diamidine-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride (DAPI) were obtained from Beyotime Institute of Biotechnology (Shanghai, China). Matrigel was obtained from BD Biosciences (San José, CA, USA). Radioimmunoprecipitation assay (RIPA) lysis buffer (Cat. No. PC101) was purchased from Shanghai EpiZyme Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membranes (Cat. No. ISEQ00010) were purchased from MilliporeSigma (Burlington, MA, USA). Rabbit anti-phospho-ERK1/2 (Thr202/Tyr204) and rabbit anti-ERK1/2 antibodies were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology (CST; Danvers, MA, US). Rabbit anti-Bcl-2 and rabbit anti-Bax antibodies were obtained from Abcam (Cambridge, UK). Rabbit anti-β-actin antibody was purchased from GeneTex, Inc. (Irvine, CA, USA). Horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated AffiniPure goat anti-rabbit immunoglobulin G (IgG; [H + L]; ZB-2301) was purchased from Zsbio Commerce Store (Beijing, China).

Plant Material

Purple P. frutescens leaves were purchased from Sichuan Neautus Chinese Herbal Pieces Co., Ltd. (Chengdu, China) in June 2017 and identified by Dr. Ji-hai Gao (Chengdu University of TCM, Chengdu, China). A voucher specimen (ZS-20171215) was deposited at the State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, Chengdu University of TCM.

Extraction of EOPF

EOPF was extracted by steam distillation as described previously.27 Briefly, 0.5 kg of P. frutescens leaves was collected and hydrodistilled for 10 h to obtain the essential oil (2.2 mL). After drying using anhydrous sodium sulfate, the oil was stored in a brown bottle. Our previous study demonstrated that EOPF mainly contains monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes and that perillaldehyde accounts for about 37.15% in EOPF by using an area normalization method.13

Dissolution of Drugs

DMSO was used as the solvent for sunitinib, EOPF, and perillaldehyde solutions. Negative controls were treated with 0.1% DMSO.

Zebrafish and Embryos Maintenance

All adult zebrafish were maintained under standard conditions (ESEN Water-Purification Tech., Beijing, China) at Chengdu University of TCM. The vascular system of Tg (flk1:EGFP) zebrafish can specifically express EGFP. All adult zebrafish were maintained at 28.5°C, pH 7.2–7.4, under a 14 h light/10 h dark cycle in fish water (conductivity: 500–550 μs/cm). In addition, zebrafish larvae were maintained according to our previous research.28 All experimental procedures were approved by the Laboratory Animal Ethics Committee of Chengdu University of TCM (2019–23).

Cell Culture

HUVECs were purchased from Zhong Qiao Xin Zhou Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China) and cultured in DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS, 100 U/mL penicillin, and 100 µg/mL streptomycin in humidified air containing 5% CO2 at 37°C.

Zebrafish Experiments

Zebrafish embryos were placed into 24-well microplates (at least 15 embryos/well), incubated until 10 h postfertilization (hpf), and randomly divided into different groups. The zebrafish embryos treated with sunitinib (1.5 µg/mL) were used as the model group. In the drug groups, the zebrafish embryos were treated with (i) EOPF (1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, or 20 µg/mL) and sunitinib (1.5 µg/mL) or (ii) perillaldehyde (3.13, 6.25, 12.5, 25, or 50 µM) and sunitinib (1.5 µg/mL). All embryos were incubated in an incubator at 28.5°C. At 48 hpf, fluorescence images of intersegmental vessels (ISVs) were taken using an M165-FC fluorescence stereomicroscope (Leica Corporation, Wetzlar, Germany). The ISV indices of zebrafish were calculated as follows: ISV index = the number of normal blood vessels + the number of incomplete blood vessels × 0.5.28

Cell Viability Test

The effects of EOPF and perillaldehyde on HUVEC viability were evaluated by a colorimetric MTT method. Briefly, HUVECs were trypsinized and seeded into 96-well plates (5 × 103 cells per well). After a 24-h incubation, the cells were randomly divided into different groups. The cells treated with sunitinib (1 µg/mL) were used as the model group. In the drug groups, the cells were treated with (i) EOPF (1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, or 20 µg/mL) and sunitinib (1 µg/mL) or (ii) perillaldehyde (3.13, 6.25, 12.5, 25, or 50 µM) and sunitinib (1 µg/mL). After incubation for 48 h, medium with 1 mg/mL MTT was added into each well. After incubating for 4 h, 150 μL of DMSO was added to solubilize formazan precipitates. Finally, the optical density was measured at 490 nm using a Varioskan Flash Multiskan Mk3 microplate reader (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA).

EdU Proliferation Experiment

The EdU immunofluorescence staining assay was carried out to detect the effects of EOPF and perillaldehyde on HUVEC proliferation. The cells were trypsinized, seeded in 96-well plates (5 × 103 cells per well), and incubated for 24 h. The cells treated with sunitinib (1 µg/mL) were used as the model group. The cells treated with (i) EOPF (5, 10, or 20 µg/mL) and sunitinib (1 µg/mL) or (ii) perillaldehyde (12.5, 25, or 50 µM) and sunitinib (1 µg/mL) were used as the drug groups. After incubation for 48 h, the cells were stained with EdU-labeling solution (10 µM) for 2 h at 37°C in an incubator and fixed with 4% cold paraformaldehyde for 15 min. Afterward, cells were treated with 0.3% Triton X-100 and Click-iT reaction cocktail. Finally, DAPI staining was performed to counterstain the nuclei. The fluorescent images were obtained by a Leica DMI3000B inverted fluorescence microscope (Leica, Wetzlar, Germany). In addition, ImageJ software (version 1.8.0) (National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA) was used to count cells. The proportion of positive cells was calculated as follows: EdU-positive cells (%) = (number of green EdU-stained cells/number of blue DAPI-stained cells) × 100%. The average of five groups was calculated.25

Wound Healing Assay

A wound healing assay was carried out to detect the effect of EOPF and perillaldehyde on HUVEC migration. HUVECs in the exponential growth phase were seeded in 6-well plates. A 200-µL pipette tip was used to generate scratches when the cells were grown to 90% confluence. The cells were divided into different groups as described in the “EdU proliferation experiment” section. After a 24-h treatment, a Leica microscope was used to observe the migratory effects of EOPF and perillaldehyde on HUVECs. Finally, the scratch area was measured by ImageJ software version 1.8.0. The migration rate was calculated as follows: migration rate (%) = [(scratch area at 0 h - scratch area at 24 h)/scratch area at 0 h] × 100%.25

In vitro Tube Formation

Matrigel was prechilled at 4°C overnight. Next, 96-well plates were coated with Matrigel solution (50 µL/well) and incubated in an incubator for 1 h to solidify the Matrigel. Then, HUVECs were trypsinized and seeded in 96-well plates (2 × 104 cells/well). The cells were divided into different groups as described in the “EdU proliferation experiment” section. After a 12-h incubation, tube-like structures of HUVECs were photographed by a Leica DMI3000B microscope and the tube length was measured with ImageJ version 1.8.0.

Western Blot Analysis

The cells were divided into different groups as described in the “EdU proliferation experiment” section. After washing in precooled PBS, the cells were lysed in RIPA buffer containing phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride and protein phosphatase inhibitors. Equal amounts of protein (30 µg) were separated via sodium dodecyl sulphate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and transferred onto 0.45-µm PVDF membranes, which were blocked for 2 h in tris-buffered saline and polysorbate (TBST) containing 5% nonfat dried milk and stained overnight with antibodies specific to the target proteins (anti-β-actin, anti-p-ERK1/2 [Thr202/Tyr204], anti-ERK1/2, anti-Bcl-2, and anti-Bax). Then, the membranes were washed using TBST and probed with an HRP-conjugated secondary antibody for 1 h at 37°C. Protein bands were visualized using a Tanon 5200 chemiluminescent imaging system (Tanon, Shanghai, China).

Statistical Analysis

All experiments were performed in three biological replicates. Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation (SD) and differences among multiple groups were analyzed with one-way analysis of variance, followed by Tukey’s post hoc test. Figures were prepared using GraphPad Prism software Version 5.0 (GraphPad Software, Inc., San Diego, CA, US). P < 0.05 was considered as statistically significant in all comparisons.

Results

Pro-Angiogenic Effect of EOPF on Zebrafish

The transgenic Tg (flk1:EGFP) zebrafish embryos were employed to explore the pro-angiogenic effect of EOPF on ISVs. As shown in Figure 1, sunitinib significantly inhibited the formation of ISVs. In addition, most blood vessels were incomplete and discontinuous after sunitinib treatment. The ISV index in the sunitinib group was 5.33 ± 0.76, which was markedly decreased compared with the control group (21.02 ± 1.05; P < 0.01). The ISV indices after EOPF treatment at 1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 µg/mL were 7.33 ± 0.77 (P < 0.05), 9.34 ± 1.04 (P < 0.01), 14.84 ± 1.04 (P < 0.01), 16.66 ± 0.78 (P < 0.01), and 17.37 ± 0.76 (P < 0.01), respectively. Indeed, EOPF exhibited a significant dose-dependent stimulatory effect on angiogenesis in zebrafish embryos.

Figure 1

EOPF promoted angiogenesis of zebrafish. (A) Fluorescent images of blood vessels of zebrafish: a. control; b. treatment with 1.5 µg/mL sunitinib; c. treatment with 1.5 µg/mL sunitinib plus 1.25 µg/mL EOPF; d. treatment with 1.5 µg/mL sunitinib plus 2.5 µg/mL EOPF; e. treatment with 1.5 µg/mL sunitinib plus 5 µg/mL EOPF; f. treatment with 1.5 µg/mL sunitinib plus 10 µg/mL EOPF; g. treatment with 1.5 µg/mL sunitinib plus 20 µg/mL EOPF. The images of h–n are partial enlargements of images a–g. (B) EOPF promoted angiogenesis of sunitinib-injured zebrafish. ##P < 0.01 vs untreated control, **P < 0.01 vs sunitinib, *P < 0.05 vs sunitinib.

Pro-Angiogenic Effect of Perillaldehyde on Zebrafish

The effect of perillaldehyde on zebrafish ISVs was evaluated. As shown in Figure 2, the ISV index in the sunitinib group was 5.57 ± 1.06, which was markedly decreased compared with the control group (21.33 ± 0.57; P < 0.01). However, perillaldehyde treatment at 3.13, 6.25, 12.5, 25, and 50 µM observably increased the ISV indices in a dose-dependent manner to 7.66 ± 1.04 (P < 0.05), 10.03 ± 1.32 (P < 0.01), 15.82 ± 1.04 (P < 0.01), 17.32 ± 0.79 (P < 0.01), and 18.29 ± 0.77 (P < 0.01), respectively. These results indicated that perillaldehyde, the main component of EOPF, also exhibited significant pro-angiogenic activity in zebrafish embryos.

Figure 2

Perillaldehyde promoted angiogenesis of zebrafish. (A) Fluorescent images of blood vessels of zebrafish: a. control; b. treatment with 1.5 µg/mL sunitinib; c. treatment with 1.5 µg/mL sunitinib plus 3.13 µM perillaldehyde; d. treatment with 1.5 µg/mL sunitinib plus 6.25 µM perillaldehyde; e. treatment with 1.5 µg/mL sunitinib plus 12.5 µM perillaldehyde; f. treatment with 1.5 µg/mL sunitinib plus 25 µM perillaldehyde; g. treatment with 1.5 µg/mL sunitinib plus 50 µM perillaldehyde. The images of h–n were partial enlargements of images a–g. (B) Perillaldehyde promoted angiogenesis of sunitinib-injured zebrafish. ##P < 0.01 vs untreated control, **P < 0.01 vs sunitinib, *P < 0.05 vs sunitinib.

EOPF Promoted Proliferation of HUVECs

An MTT assay was carried out to evaluate cell viability. As demonstrated in Figure 3A, HUVEC viability strongly decreased from 100% in the control group to 51.17% ± 5.07% in the sunitinib group (P < 0.01). However, EOPF treatment at 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 µg/mL dramatically increased sunitinib-injured HUVEC viability in a dose-dependent manner to 65.66% ± 5.79% (P < 0.01), 73.54% ± 4.27% (P < 0.01), 79.66% ± 4.36% (P < 0.01), and 81.12% ± 3.96% (P < 0.01), respectively. Furthermore, an EdU experiment was performed to measure the effect of EOPF on HUVEC proliferation. The proportion of EdU-positive cells after a 48-h incubation decreased from 100% in the control group to 23.47% ± 2.52% (P < 0.01) in the sunitinib group, whereas EOPF treatment at 5, 10, and 20 µg/mL dramatically increased the proportion of EdU-positive cells to 39.06% ± 3.88% (P < 0.01), 44.22% ± 5.28% (P < 0.01), and 68.66% ± 4.05% (P < 0.01), respectively (Figure 3B and C). All of these findings indicate that EOPF stimulates HUVEC proliferation.

Figure 3

EOPF promoted proliferation of HUVECs. (A) An MTT assay was carried out to measure HUVECs viability. EOPF at 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 µg/mL signally increased viability of sunitinib-treated HUVECs. (B) Cells of DAPI and EdU staining were captured. (C) EOPF at 5, 10, and 20 µg/mL observably promoted proliferation of sunitinib-injured HUVECs. Results are presented as the mean ± SD for three individual experiments. ##P < 0.01 vs untreated control, **P < 0.01 vs sunitinib.

Perillaldehyde Promoted Proliferation of HUVECs

The MTT results showed that HUVEC viability decreased from 100% in the control group to 51.66% ± 6.17% in the sunitinib group (P < 0.01, Figure 4A). Interestingly, perillaldehyde treatment at 12.5, 25, and 50 µM markedly increased sunitinib-treated HUVEC viability to 71.16% ± 3.68% (P < 0.01), 81.33% ± 3.01% (P < 0.01), and 84.33% ± 5.83% (P < 0.01), respectively. In addition, EdU immunofluorescence staining was carried out to measure the effect on cell proliferation. The proportion of EdU-positive cells after a 48-h incubation decreased from 100% in the control group to 24.80% ± 2.95% (P < 0.01) in the sunitinib group. Nevertheless, perillaldehyde treatment at 12.5, 25, and 50 µM dramatically increased the ratio of EdU-positive cells in a dose-dependent manner to 43.06% ± 3.51% (P < 0.01), 54.55% ± 6.77% (P < 0.01), and 78.65% ± 5.95% (P < 0.01), respectively (Figure 4B and C). These results demonstrated that perillaldehyde could promote HUVEC proliferation.

Figure 4

Perillaldehyde promoted proliferation of HUVECs. (A) An MTT assay was carried out to measure HUVECs viability. Perillaldehyde at 12.5, 25, and 50 µM signally increased viability of sunitinib-treated HUVECs. (B) Cells of DAPI and EdU staining were captured. (C) Perillaldehyde at 12.5, 25, and 50 µM observably promoted proliferation of sunitinib-injured HUVECs. Results are presented as the mean ± SD for three individual experiments. ##P < 0.01 vs untreated control, **P < 0.01 vs sunitinib.

EOPF Promoted Migration of HUVECs

The effect of EOPF on sunitinib-injured HUVEC migration was demonstrated by a wound healing experiment. As displayed in Figure 5, the migration rate decreased from 52.5% ± 3.04% to 14.95% ± 1.92% (P < 0.01) after sunitinib treatment for 24 h, resulting in an increased wound area. As expected, EOPF significantly promoted sunitinib-treated HUVEC migration; the migration rates increased to 18.89% ± 2.56% (P < 0.01), 38.12% ± 2.52% (P < 0.01), and 42.94% ± 2.10% (P < 0.01) after EOPF treatment at 5, 10, and 20 µg/mL for 24 h, respectively. These results indicated that EOPF could promote migration of HUVECs.

Figure 5

EOPF promoted migration of HUVECs. (A) The healing area of the wound at 0 and 24 h were photographed by a microscopy. (B) EOPF at 10 and 20 µg/mL dramatically boosted migration of HUVECs. Results are presented as the mean ± SD for three individual experiments. ##P < 0.01 vs untreated control, **P < 0.01 vs sunitinib.

Perillaldehyde Promoted Migration of HUVECs

The wound healing assay was also performed to further evaluate whether perillaldehyde promotes the migration of sunitinib-treated HUVECs. As demonstrated in Figure 6, sunitinib treatment resulted in a decreased migration rate from 53.93% ± 3.04% to 15.48% ± 2.51% (P < 0.01). Perillaldehyde prominently promoted the migratory ability of sunitinib-treated HUVECs in a dose-dependent manner. Migration rates increased to 26.34% ± 2.78% (P < 0.01), 45.29% ± 1.98% (P < 0.01), and 48.16% ± 2.41% (P < 0.01) at 12.5, 25, and 50 μM, respectively. These results indicated that perillaldehyde also could promote HUVEC migration.

Figure 6

Perillaldehyde promoted migration of HUVECs. (A) The healing area of the wound at 0 and 24 h was photographed by a microscopy. (B) Perillaldehyde at 12.5, 25, and 50 µM prominently boosted migration of HUVECs. Results are presented as the mean ± SD for three individual experiments. ##P < 0.01 vs untreated control, **P < 0.01 vs sunitinib.

EOPF Promoted Tube Formation of HUVECs

The effect of EOPF on the formation of capillary-like structures by sunitinib-injured HUVECs was detected using Matrigel. As observed in Figure 7, well-branched tubes were formed in the control group. Sunitinib significantly inhibited the formation of capillary-like structures, resulting in a dramatically reduced tube length: from 100% to 52.18% ± 2.18% (P < 0.01). Interestingly, sunitinib-injured HUVECs treated with EOPF exhibited a remarkable increased in capillary-like structures. EOPF at 5, 10, and 20 µg/mL increased the tube lengths to 59.78% ± 3.83% (P < 0.05), 73.31% ± 4.44% (P < 0.01), and 90.01% ± 4.04% (P < 0.01), respectively. These results showed that EOPF observably stimulated tube formation by HUVECs.

Figure 7

EOPF promoted tube formation of HUVECs. (A) A microscope was used to photograph tubular structures (100 × magnification). (B) EOPF treatment at 5, 10, and 20 µg/mL significant boosted tube formation in sunitinib-injured HUVECs. Results are presented as the mean ± SD for three individual experiments. ##P < 0.01 vs untreated control, **P < 0.01 vs sunitinib, *P < 0.05 vs sunitinib.

Perillaldehyde Promoted Tube Formation of HUVECs

The in vitro tube formation experiment was conducted to explore the effect of perillaldehyde on the formation of capillary-like structures by HUVECs (Figure 8). Sunitinib significantly decreased the tube length from 100% to 53.42% ± 3.93% (P < 0.01). Perillaldehyde treatment at 12.5, 25, and 50 µM observably promoted the formation of capillary-like structures; the tube lengths were 56.45% ± 3.68%, 83.31% ± 4.44% (P < 0.01), and 93.96% ± 3.86% (P < 0.01), respectively. Similar to the effects of EOPF, perillaldehyde also observably boosted the tube formation by HUVECs.

Figure 8

Perillaldehyde promoted tube formation of HUVECs. (A) A microscope was used to photograph tubular structures (100 × magnification). (B) Perillaldehyde treatment at 12.5, 25, and 50 µM dramatically boosted tube formation in sunitinib-injured HUVECs. Results are presented as the mean ± SD for three individual experiments. ##P < 0.01 vs untreated control, **P < 0.01 vs sunitinib.

EOPF Promoted Angiogenesis by Increasing p-ERK1/2/ERK1/2 and Bcl-2/Bax Expression Ratios

The effects of EOPF on p-ERK1/2, ERK1/2, Bcl-2, and Bax expression levels in sunitinib-treated HUVECs were further studied via Western blot (Figure 9). In comparison with the control group, sunitinib treatment at 1 µg/mL for 48 h significantly decreased the p-ERK1/2 to ERK1/2 expression ratio (P < 0.01). However, EOPF treatment at 10 (P < 0.01) and 20 µg/mL (P < 0.01) significantly reversed the decreased p-ERK1/2 to ERK1/2 ratio. Moreover, the results also showed that sunitinib significantly decreased Bcl-2 protein expression (P < 0.01), increased Bax protein expression (P < 0.01), and hence downregulated the expression ratio of Bcl-2/Bax (P < 0.01). EOPF dramatically upregulated Bcl-2 expression at 5 (P < 0.01), 10 (P < 0.01), and 20 µg/mL (P < 0.01), decreased Bax expression at 10 (P < 0.01) and 20 µg/mL (P < 0.01), and increased the expression ratio of Bcl-2/Bax at 5 (P < 0.01), 10 (P < 0.01), and 20 µg/mL (P < 0.01). Therefore, EOPF promoted angiogenesis by increasing the p-ERK1/2 to ERK1/2 and Bcl-2 to Bax expression ratios in HUVECs.

Figure 9

EOPF promoted angiogenesis by increasing p-ERK/ERK and Bcl-2/Bax expression ratios. (A) The protein levels of p-ERK (Thr202/Tyr204), ERK, and β-actin were examined by Western blot. (B) EOPF increased the ratio of p-ERK/ERK. (C) The protein levels of Bcl-2, Bax, and β-actin were measured via Western blot. (D) EOPF increased Bcl-2 expression levels. (E) EOPF decreased Bax expression levels. (F) EOPF increased the ratio of Bcl-2/Bax. Results are presented as the mean ± SD for three individual experiments. ##P < 0.01 vs untreated control, **P < 0.01 vs sunitinib.

Perillaldehyde Promoted Angiogenesis by Increasing p-ERK1/2/ERK1/2 and Bcl-2/Bax Expression Ratios

To clarify whether the pro-angiogenic mechanism of perillaldehyde is the same as that of EOPF, the protein expression levels of p-ERK1/2, ERK1/2, Bcl-2, and Bax were assessed. As shown in Figure 10, in comparison with the control group, the p-ERK1/2 to ERK1/2 expression ratio was remarkably decreased after sunitinib treatment at 1 µg/mL for 48 h (P < 0.01). In agreement with the effect of EOPF, perillaldehyde significantly increased the p-ERK1/2 to ERK1/2 expression ratio at 25 (P < 0.01) and 50 µM (P < 0.01). As for Bcl-2 and Bax expression levels, perillaldehyde dramatically increased Bcl-2 expression at 12.5 (P < 0.05), 25 (P < 0.01), and 50 µM (P < 0.01), decreased Bax expression at 25 (P < 0.01) and 50 µM (P < 0.01), and increased the Bcl-2/Bax expression ratio at 12.5 (P < 0.01), 25 (P < 0.01), and 50 µM (P < 0.01). Similar to the effects of EOPF, perillaldehyde promotes angiogenesis by upregulation of the p-ERK1/2 to ERK1/2 and Bcl-2 to Bax expression ratios in HUVECs.

Figure 10

Perillaldehyde promoted angiogenesis by increasing p-ERK/ERK and Bcl-2/Bax expression ratios. (A) The protein levels of p-ERK (Thr202/Tyr204), ERK, and β-actin were examined by Western blot. (B) Perillaldehyde increased the expression ratio of p-ERK to ERK. (C) The protein levels of Bcl-2, Bax, and β-actin were measured via Western blot. (D) Perillaldehyde increased Bcl-2 expression levels. (E) EOPF decreased Bax expression levels. (F) Perillaldehyde increased the expression ratio of Bcl-2/Bax. Results are presented as the mean ± SD for three individual experiments. ##P < 0.01 vs untreated control, **P < 0.01 vs sunitinib, *P < 0.05 vs sunitinib.

Discussion

Natural medicines from plant source are important resources used for therapy. Previous studies have proved that essential oils from medicinal herbs exert significant antimicrobial,29 anti-inflammatory,30 antiproliferative,31 and antitumor effects,32 with clinical applications in treating antimicrobial resistance, burns, and malarial infection.33 Traditional edible-medicinal herbs have long been used to protect against cardio-cerebrovascular diseases.34–36 P. frutescens is historically an important edible-medicinal herb. Research is lacking, however, on the effects of P. frutescens in cardio-cerebrovascular diseases. Angiogenesis plays a major role in the treatment of cardio-cerebrovascular diseases.37,38 These studies inspired us to explore the pro-angiogenic effects of P. frutescens. The present study revealed significant pro-angiogenic effects of EOPF, the main active constituent of P. frutescens, and perillaldehyde, the main component of EOPF, on sunitinib-treated transgenic Tg (flk1:EGFP) zebrafish embryos and HUVECs. The mechanisms underlying the stimulatory effects of EOPF and perillaldehyde on angiogenesis were revealed in sunitinib-injured HUVECs for the first time.

Zebrafish, a popular and convincing in vivo model of angiogenesis, was used to detect the pro-angiogenic activity of EOPF and perillaldehyde. As expected, EOPF and perillaldehyde exerted a significant stimulatory effect on the formation of ISVs. Moreover, HUVECs were used to verify the pro-angiogenic effects. It is well established that proliferation, migration, and tube formation of ECs are three pivotal steps in angiogenesis.39 Many studies have reported that EC proliferation acts as the initial step in angiogenesis.40,41 The MTT and EdU staining assays showed that EOPF and perillaldehyde prominently promoted proliferation of sunitinib-injured HUVECs. New blood vessels are gradually formed as an increasing number of proliferated cells migrate to the extracellular matrix.42,43 In the present study, sunitinib dramatically restrained migration and tube formation of HUVECs. However, EOPF enhanced migration and tube formation in sunitinib-treated HUVECs. The stimulative effects of perillaldehyde on migration and tube formation were also confirmed. All of these findings indicated that EOPF and perillaldehyde exerted a strong pro-angiogenic effect by promoting the formation of ISVs in zebrafish embryos and promoting proliferation, migration, and tube formation in HUVECs.

The MAPK pathways act as vital signaling pathways in regulating cellular proliferation, apoptosis, and differentiation, playing critical roles in angiogenesis.44,45 ERK1 and ERK2 are critical serine-threonine kinases of the MAPK family, and their important roles in regulating angiogenesis have been widely reported.46,47 In this research, EOPF and perillaldehyde increased phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in sunitinib-treated HUVECs. EOPF and perillaldehyde might activate the MAPK pathways, promoting angiogenesis in HUVECs. It has been documented that the apoptosis pathway plays a vital role in regulating angiogenesis.48–50 Hence, the expression levels of Bcl-2, which promotes cell survival and suppresses cell death, and Bax, which promotes cell death and suppresses cell survival, were studied. Both are important apoptotic regulatory proteins, belonging to the Bcl-2 family.51,52 Our current research indicated that sunitinib dramatically decreased the expression of Bcl-2, increased that of Bax, and decreased the ratio of Bcl-2 to Bax in HUVECs. EOPF and perillaldehyde reversed the decrease of Bcl-2 and the increase of Bax expression, and hence increased the expression ratio of Bcl-2 to Bax. Therefore, the mechanisms underlying the pro-angiogenic effects of EOPF and perillaldehyde are correlated with upregulation of Bcl-2 and downregulation of Bax expression. In summary, the mechanisms by which EOPF and perillaldehyde promote angiogenesis are related to the MAPK and apoptosis signaling pathways. Further details remain to be elucidated.

In our previous study, EOPF and perillaldehyde were shown to exert significant vasorelaxant effects, suggesting that EOPF and perillaldehyde might play important roles in the treatment of cardio-cerebrovascular diseases.13 The current study showed that EOPF and perillaldehyde could promote angiogenesis by repairing sunitinib-injured ISVs in zebrafish embryos and promoting HUVEC proliferation, migration, and tube formation. We are the first to report that the underlying mechanisms of these effects include increased p-ERK1/2 to ERK1/2 and Bcl-2 to Bax expression ratios. EOPF and perillaldehyde showed the same pro-angiogenic activity, confirming that perillaldehyde acts as a bioactive component of EOPF. Based on our results, perillaldehyde and other compounds in EOPF may have synergistic effects on angiogenesis, but further studies are needed to confirm this hypothesis. Interestingly, EOPF and perillaldehyde could play important roles in the treatment of cardio-cerebrovascular diseases because of their significant vasorelaxant and pro-angiogenic effects.

Conclusion

The present study is the first report to provide clear evidence that EOPF and perillaldehyde promote angiogenesis by repairing sunitinib-injured ISVs in zebrafish embryos and promoting HUVEC proliferation, migration, and tube formation by increasing the p-ERK1/2 to ERK1/2 and Bcl-2 to Bax expression ratios. The observation that the pro-angiogenic effects of EOPF and perillaldehyde are very similar proved that perillaldehyde is a bioactive component of EOPF. EOPF and perillaldehyde could play important roles in the treatment of cardio-cerebrovascular diseases, which is consistent with the traditional application of P. frutescens.