Practical and robust test for comparing binomial proportions in the randomized phase II setting.

The one-arm, non-randomized, one/two-stage phase II designs have been a mainstay in oncology trials for evaluating response rates or similar variants (i.e., tests about single proportions). With the goal of screening new therapies that have the potential to move into a randomized phase III trial or a subsequent randomized phase II trial, all while maintaining a logistically feasible sample size. However, since the implementation of the Food and Drug Administration's Fast Track Designation, there has been a trend toward randomized phase II clinical trials as a source of stronger evidence for those seeking fast-track approvals. While there are many single- and multi-stage randomized designs for evaluating proportions in this phase II setting, there still exist limitations in terms of sample size (which directly impacts cost and study duration) or operating characteristics (ex. maintained type I error). In this article, we propose a new test for comparing two binomial proportions, which is a modification across existing methods (the standard z-test and Jung's test). This approach is contrasted with existing methods via numeric evaluation and further contrasted using a real-world oncology trial. The proposed method demonstrates improvements in efficiency and robustness against deviations from design assumptions. When applied to the existing trial, significant savings with respect to cost and time are illustrated. Our proposed test for comparing binomial proportions provides an efficient and robust alternative in the randomized phase II oncology setting, especially when the control arm has a high rate.

BACKGROUND

The one‐arm non‐randomized two‐stage Simon design, or similar variants, , , , have been a mainstay for oncology trials in the phase II setting for testing about a single proportion, for example, testing about the proportion of complete or partial responders. The goal of these designs is to screen new therapies that have the potential to move into a randomized phase III trial or a subsequent randomized phase II trial while maintaining a logistically feasible sample size.

The test of interest for the traditional single arm two‐stage Simon design about a proportion takes the form: where is the current response rate for the standard of care for a given cancer type, often determined by some criteria such as RECIST or disease progression at some fixed time. The design itself has several desirable properties including an algorithm that allows one to search for the bounded α levels for each futility decision rule configuration near the desirable exact α rate. These designs treat as a fixed known value, though it should be noted that in many instances is wrongly treated as fixed when in fact it is derived from previous studies and should be considered a historical estimate.

In recent years, investigators are turning to the two‐arm randomized design for not only the statistical considerations (ex. bias, error control, and quality of evidence) and evolving treatment outcomes (ex. use of delayed tumor progression), but also as an alternative business strategy. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has a fast‐track designation, which “provides for the designation of a drug as a fast‐track product… if it is intended, whether alone or in combination with one or more other drugs, for the treatment of a serious or life‐threatening disease or condition, and it demonstrates the potential to address unmet medical needs for such a disease or condition. This provision is intended to facilitate development and expedite review of drugs to treat serious and life‐threatening conditions so that an approved product can reach the market expeditiously.” Under this definition, many cancer disease site specific therapies are eligible for this designation. A randomized two‐arm trial provides a stronger degree of evidence for approval in the fast track seeking as compared to a one‐arm trial, providing strong motivation for carrying forth a randomized phase II trial.

However, a two‐arm trial requires a substantially greater sample size as compared to a single‐arm trial. For example, the maximum sample size needed for a Simon minimax two‐stage design, stopping for futility, for testing versus to detect an alternative rate of  = 0.5 or larger at type I error rate  = 0.05 and power 1−β = 0.8 is n = 39. By comparison the single stage sample size for testing versus in a two‐arm randomized setting, where and denote the new treatment and standard‐of‐care rates, respectively, requires a total sample size of n = 83 + 83 = 166 using Fisher's exact test at =0.05 and 1 − β = 0.8. This difference in sample size comes with an increased cost; where, in 2013, it was estimated that the average cost per subject in an oncology trial is roughly $59,500. Hence, under simplifying assumptions, the average approximate cost difference for our simple example is $7,556,500.

In terms of design choices for testing versus in the randomized two‐arm phase oncology II setting, the focus has been on generalizations of Simon type two‐stage ideas for comparing two proportions using a variety of test statistics and methods for generating exact null distributions. If we let denote the historical standard‐of‐care rate that one would utilize in a typical one‐arm design, Jung developed an exact two‐stage test about the null hypothesis versus . The null distribution is then given by a straightforward product of two independent binomials under a fixed value for , e.g., from our previous example above = 0.3. Decision rules for early stopping due to futility are obtained in a similar fashion to the approach of Simon in the one‐arm two‐stage setting. The obvious limitation of this approach is again the reliance on the precise choice of . This work was followed by an exact two‐stage test based on Fisher's exact test where in reference to the first test by Jung it was noted that “…if the true response probabilities are different from the specified ones, the testing based on binomial distributions may not maintain the type I error close to the specified design value.” Jung proposed to use as a general rule  = 0.5 for all designs. While this approach better maintains the type I error under misspecifications of the null, it also creates a very conservative test if the true ≠ 0.5 and asymptotically converges to the incorrect distribution. A similar two‐stage design is given by utilizing Barnard's test statistic. Kepner also provides a general exact sequential procedure, which contains a two‐stage design as a special case, stopping for futility, efficacy, or both. Additional methods have been proposed in which the total sample size is minimized and the type I error rate controlled through critical region sculpting or by utilization of a Bayesian framework. In this note, we provide a method for modifying the single‐stage version of Jung's approach that is accurate, efficient, and robust to the choice of .

In this work, we introduce our modified two‐group test about proportions and compare the operating characteristics of our modified Jung test to commonly used methods (large sample z‐test, Fisher's exact test, Barnard's unconditional test, and Jung's single‐stage approach) via numeric evaluations and illustration involving an existing clinical trial. In the discussion, we further contrast our modified Jung test with the existing methods.

TWO‐GROUP TEST FOR COMPARING TWO PROPORTIONS

In keeping with the standard single‐arm trials and Jung, we have developed our test around a fixed historic rate () and the hypotheses:

Let and denote the number of responders from samples of size and , corresponding to the experimental treatment arm and the standard‐of‐care arm, respectively. The key feature of our approach is to incorporate an Agresti–Coull type continuity correction that allows us to correct a z‐type statistic to have precise and bounded type I error control. In addition, we will show that this approach is theoretically robust to misspecification of . Toward this end, our modified Jung test statistic takes the form: where , , and is a fixed constant depending upon , , , and . Adding one success and one failure to the estimators and , similar to Agresti and Coull, provides a mechanism such that we are not dividing by zero in Equation (2).

Determination of . First, let: where denotes the indicator function, is a binomial probability calculated under , is a binomial probability calculated under , and denotes the standard normal c.d.f. Now, determine the value of , which we will denote , such that subject to the constraint . The determination of is a straightforward process from a numerical solutions standpoint. In essence, we are correcting the z test statistic in Equation (2) to have a precise and bounded level in the finite sample setting using exact binomial probabilities calculated under . For unbalanced designs, a minimum (, where and ) and maximum () sample sizes are specified, then all combinations of , , and that satisfy the α constraint are identified. The optimum design is that combination which maximizes the power for the effect size of interest (; where is a clinically relevant treatment rate).

Once has been determined, the calculation of the one‐sided p‐value for testing the hypotheses specified in Equation (1) is given by ; where we replace for in Equation (2). A key feature of our approach that is distinct from Jung is that the form of our test statistic provides an asymptotically type I error controlled and exact test for either a correctly specified or for ; where the value of is constant for a given and under a pre‐specified set of design conditions. For example, for = 0.10 and n = 10 + 10 = 20, we generated a plot of versus in Figure 1.

FIGURE 1

Plot of versus for given a sample size of 10

As the sample sizes and increase jointly, the limit of the adjustment factor, , will tend toward 0 (as illustrated in Figure 2). The other component of the test statistic, , is asymptotically normally distributed. Therefore, in large samples, Equation (2) approaches normality and the type I error is asymptotically controlled. For large sample sizes, the exact approach and the asymptotic z‐test approach have very similar type I error control.

FIGURE 2

Plot of versus for and 0.1, 0.25, and 0.5

An additional benefit to this approach is that unbalanced designs are permitted without altering the test statistic. For a fixed n = nT + nC; the values of nT, nC, and would be selected such that the power is maximized, that is: where is the treatment rate under the alternative hypothesis. In some scenarios, given a maximum total sample size, an unbalanced design can provide more power than the corresponding balanced design . This is illustrated in Figure 3, where the power for testing versus across different effect sizes is plotted for unbalanced and balanced designs when .

FIGURE 3

Plot of power versus for balanced and unbalanced designs

NUMERICAL EVALUATION OF COMPETING APPROACHES

The operating characteristics (type I error rate and power) of the modified Jung test (balanced and unbalanced designs) were evaluated numerically and compared to those of Fisher's exact test, Barnard's unconditional test (single stage version of Reference 13 and calculations made using the Exact package in R v4.0.2 with the Boshloo method for finding extreme tables), the asymptotic z‐test, and the single‐stage test of Jung. Using binomial enumeration, the probability of rejection was calculated for the following hypotheses: versus . A range of realistic 's, effect sizes (), and sample sizes () were considered, which are outlined in Table 1.

TABLE 1

Numeric evaluation of power under a correctly specified

α = 0.05		n = 40					n = 80					n = 120
π_C	π_T	F	Z	J	B	mJ	F	Z	J	B	mJ	F	Z	J	B	mJ
0.10	0.10	0.008	0.029	0.032	0.020	0.031	0.019	0.057	0.046	0.040	0.046	0.028	0.051	0.046	0.038	0.049
	0.15	0.041	0.096	0.113	0.068	0.109	0.093	0.186	0.196	0.150	0.175	0.144	0.206	0.243	0.179	0.207
	0.20	0.109	0.203	0.247	0.156	0.235	0.245	0.377	0.435	0.328	0.378	0.371	0.460	0.550	0.429	0.468
	0.25	0.213	0.337	0.413	0.279	0.385	0.450	0.583	0.673	0.536	0.597	0.633	0.712	0.805	0.688	0.725
	0.30	0.341	0.482	0.580	0.426	0.536	0.655	0.757	0.845	0.723	0.778	0.833	0.881	0.938	0.868	0.890
	0.40	0.619	0.746	0.836	0.707	0.671	0.915	0.949	0.980	0.941	0.959	0.984	0.991	0.997	0.989	0.992
0.25	0.25	0.025	0.054	0.049	0.042	0.047	0.031	0.052	0.046	0.047	0.048	0.032	0.052	0.036	0.044	0.048
	0.30	0.056	0.110	0.106	0.085	0.098	0.085	0.133	0.129	0.123	0.127	0.107	0.154	0.130	0.139	0.146
	0.35	0.106	0.194	0.193	0.149	0.171	0.184	0.268	0.270	0.247	0.258	0.255	0.329	0.309	0.314	0.320
	0.40	0.177	0.302	0.305	0.234	0.265	0.327	0.440	0.454	0.408	0.425	0.469	0.551	0.541	0.540	0.545
	0.50	0.375	0.554	0.572	0.459	0.490	0.666	0.767	0.799	0.742	0.753	0.859	0.898	0.897	0.888	0.897
0.50	0.50	0.021	0.059	0.040	0.041	0.047	0.028	0.047	0.046	0.046	0.048	0.041	0.060	0.041	0.042	0.050
	0.55	0.044	0.107	0.076	0.077	0.088	0.072	0.110	0.108	0.109	0.113	0.117	0.157	0.117	0.119	0.138
	0.60	0.083	0.180	0.131	0.133	0.154	0.156	0.221	0.215	0.216	0.228	0.260	0.323	0.260	0.268	0.303
	0.65	0.148	0.282	0.210	0.215	0.250	0.289	0.384	0.368	0.370	0.397	0.465	0.539	0.465	0.486	0.527
	0.75	0.375	0.554	0.438	0.459	0.526	0.666	0.767	0.727	0.742	0.779	0.859	0.898	0.858	0.888	0.897
0.75	0.75	0.025	0.054	0.049	0.042	0.047	0.031	0.052	0.046	0.047	0.048	0.032	0.052	0.036	0.044	0.048
	0.80	0.054	0.105	0.091	0.085	0.091	0.089	0.138	0.113	0.123	0.124	0.116	0.164	0.114	0.147	0.159
	0.85	0.111	0.193	0.158	0.159	0.164	0.220	0.311	0.240	0.279	0.279	0.315	0.394	0.282	0.370	0.390
	0.90	0.213	0.337	0.259	0.279	0.282	0.450	0.583	0.438	0.536	0.536	0.633	0.712	0.548	0.688	0.706
	0.95	0.376	0.546	0.401	0.469	0.469	0.750	0.863	0.685	0.830	0.830	0.916	0.948	0.825	0.937	0.939

Note: . F = fisher's exact test. Z = asymptotic z‐test. J = single‐stage Jung's test. B = Barnard's unconditional test. mJ = modified Jung test with balanced sample size.

Additional numeric evaluations were used to evaluate the impact of an incorrectly specified on the type I error rates. Only the Jung type tests are evaluated, as the decision threshold for Jung's single‐stage test and the test statistic (specifically ) for the modified Jung test depend on ; whereas the null distributions of the test statistic corresponding to Fisher's exact and the z‐tests are independent of Using binomial enumeration, the type I error rates were calculated for a variety of scenarios (outlined in Table 2) where the true and null are unequal.

TABLE 2

Numeric evaluation of type I error under an incorrectly specified

α = 0.05		n = 40		n = 80		n = 120
Assumed π_0	True π_0	J	mJ	J	mJ	J	mJ
0.1	0.050	0.0067	0.0067	0.0110	0.0226	0.0110	0.0352
	0.075	0.0179	0.0178	0.0276	0.0350	0.0280	0.0457
	0.100	0.0315	0.0311	0.0458	0.0460	0.0464	0.0492
	0.125	0.0456	0.0439	0.0630	0.0541	0.0637	0.0503
	0.150	0.0589	0.0541	0.0784	0.0584	0.0791	0.0521
	0.175	0.0710	0.0608	0.0918	0.0609	0.0926	0.0543
	0.200	0.0818	0.0642	0.1034	0.0631	0.1042	0.0554
0.25	0.15	0.0225	0.0296	0.0206	0.0447	0.0148	0.0460
	0.20	0.0367	0.0388	0.0342	0.0445	0.0260	0.0493
	0.25	0.0493	0.0473	0.0462	0.0480	0.0363	0.0485
	0.30	0.0595	0.0510	0.0560	0.0521	0.0449	0.0481
	0.35	0.0672	0.0494	0.0635	0.0508	0.0517	0.0520
	0.40	0.0727	0.0457	0.0687	0.0474	0.0564	0.0564
0.5	0.40	0.0373	0.0546	0.0431	0.0557	0.0381	0.0551
	0.45	0.0396	0.0496	0.0456	0.0503	0.0404	0.0531
	0.50	0.0403	0.0473	0.0465	0.0483	0.0412	0.0499
	0.55	0.0396	0.0496	0.0456	0.0503	0.0404	0.0531
	0.60	0.0373	0.0546	0.0431	0.0557	0.0381	0.0551
	0.65	0.0334	0.0584	0.0390	0.0591	0.0343	0.0519
0.75	0.65	0.0672	0.0494	0.0635	0.0508	0.0517	0.0520
	0.70	0.0595	0.0510	0.0560	0.0521	0.0449	0.0481
	0.75	0.0493	0.0473	0.0462	0.0480	0.0363	0.0485
	0.80	0.0367	0.0388	0.0342	0.0445	0.0260	0.0493
	0.85	0.0225	0.0296	0.0206	0.0447	0.0148	0.0460

Note: . J = single‐stage Jung's test. mJ = modified Jung test with balanced sample size.

The last numeric evaluations examine the efficiency of these tests in the design phase. For each test, the required sample size to achieve a minimum power (80% or 90%) is calculated for realistic significance levels (5% or 10%) and effect sizes (0.1 and 0.2). Additionally, using binomial enumeration, the actual power and type I error rates are calculated.

Correctly specified

Table 1 reports the numeric evaluation of power under a correctly specified . In general, when is correctly specified, the type I error rates of the single‐stage and modified Jung's tests are bounded by the target α; where Jung's single‐stage test tended to have lower error rates. Within the sample size range we considered, as n increases, the type I error rate for the modified Jung test approaches the target α; whereas this is not the case for Jung's single‐stage test. Fisher's exact test is also bounded, but the actual type I error rate tends to be much lower than specified (and relative to the other tests) and requires a large n to approach the specified α. Barnard's test is both bounded and approaches the target α as n increases. The z‐test is not bounded by the target α and tends to have higher error rates relative to the Jung type tests, but does approach the target α for large n.

In terms of power, Jung's single‐stage test tends to be the most powerful test when < 0.5 (noticeably when πC = 0.1); while the modified Jung test and z‐test tend to be the most powerful when  ≥ 0.5. This result may be due to the nature of the test statistics; where the test statistics for modified Jung test and z‐test have symmetric distributions, but the distribution of Jung's single‐stage test statistic is discrete, skewed, and bounded by n. Fisher's exact test had the lowest power across all examined scenarios, which is consistent with the significantly lower type I error rates. The modified Jung test was comparable to Barnard's test across all scenarios.

Incorrectly specified

Table 2 reports the numeric evaluation of power under an incorrectly specified . When is incorrectly specified, the actual type I error rate for Jung's single‐stage test can be significantly higher or lower than the target α. These changes appear to be dependent on both the specified and true , and, within the range of values considered, do not appear to be mitigated by an increased n. The type I error rate for the modified Jung test does, however, approach the target α for large n.

Design phase

Table 3 provides the sample size calculations for a specified type I error rate, power, and effect size. When  < 0.50, the modified Jung test was less efficient relative to Jung’ single‐stage test, requiring a 0% to 18.9% larger n. It was significantly more efficient than Fishers exact test, requiring a 5.0% to 20.3% smaller n. At  = 0.5, the modified Jung test was the most efficient method, requiring sample sizes that are 3.0% to 16.7%, 5.8% to 18.0%, and 0% to 7.4% smaller than those required for Jung's single‐stage test, Fisher's exact test, and the z‐test, respectively.

TABLE 3

Sample size calculations for a specified type I error rate, power, and effect size

	Requested:			Required n per group					Actual power					Actual α
π_0	∆	α	power	F	Z	J	B	mJ	F	Z	J	B	mJ	F	Z	J	B	mJ
0.1	0.1	0.05	0.80	173	153	134	164	151	0.8003	0.8002	0.8016	0.8022	0.8017	0.0341	0.0524	0.0415	0.0373	0.0496
			0.90	232	212	182	221	212	0.9010	0.9008	0.9020	0.9010	0.9002	0.0363	0.0506	0.0482	0.0128	0.0499
		0.10	0.80	131	111	97	120	112	0.8023	0.8012	0.8035	0.8007	0.8019	0.0691	0.1018	0.0932	0.0285	0.0958
			0.90	183	163	141	173	163	0.9014	0.9000	0.9004	0.9013	0.9001	0.0733	0.1024	0.0979	0.0672	0.0976
	0.2	0.05	0.80	56	46	37	50	44	0.8025	0.8052	0.8087	0.8078	0.8032	0.0266	0.0521	0.0397	0.0467	0.0436
			0.90	74	64	53	70	62	0.9015	0.9014	0.9003	0.9094	0.9001	0.0308	0.0513	0.0369	0.0442	0.0497
		0.10	0.80	44	33	31	39	35	0.8086	0.8073	0.8129	0.8091	0.8045	0.0506	0.1020	0.0673	0.0917	0.0817
			0.90	58	48	40	54	47	0.9009	0.9007	0.9041	0.9049	0.9018	0.0526	0.1043	0.0940	0.0886	0.0971
0.25	0.1	0.05	0.80	277	258	251	264	259	0.8011	0.8005	0.8004	0.8018	0.8001	0.0411	0.0502	0.0444	0.0430	0.0494
			0.90	377	357	337	362	358	0.9009	0.9004	0.9006	0.9002	0.9003	0.0421	0.0502	0.0499	0.0287	0.0496
		0.10	0.80	207	189	178	190	190	0.8002	0.8007	0.8023	0.8001	0.8021	0.0807	0.1012	0.0992	0.0159	0.0994
			0.90	296	272	271	281	272	0.9009	0.9001	0.9001	0.9004	0.9000	0.0848	0.1006	0.0902	0.0337	0.0992
	0.2	0.05	0.80	78	69	65	71	70	0.8029	0.8035	0.8018	0.8023	0.8037	0.0347	0.0520	0.0423	0.0062	0.0498
			0.90	106	94	87	100	94	0.9024	0.9016	0.9001	0.9021	0.9004	0.0362	0.0513	0.0479	0.0323	0.0487
		0.10	0.80	59	49	47	53	47	0.8033	0.8009	0.8063	0.8040	0.8015	0.0701	0.1055	0.0946	0.0261	0.0986
			0.90	81	74	68	75	74	0.9009	0.9021	0.9037	0.9043	0.9013	0.0709	0.1037	0.0987	0.0365	0.0995
0.5	0.1	0.05	0.80	321	297	309	309	297	0.8011	0.8012	0.8011	0.8011	0.8000	0.0448	0.0547	0.0495	0.0395	0.0497
			0.90	445	419	432	432	419	0.9008	0.9003	0.9005	0.9007	0.9003	0.0436	0.0522	0.0477	0.0413	0.0500
		0.10	0.80	236	223	236	224	214	0.8014	0.8002	0.8014	0.8017	0.8013	0.0909	0.1005	0.0909	0.0848	0.0990
			0.90	341	328	328	328	316	0.9003	0.9006	0.9006	0.9006	0.9011	0.0901	0.0988	0.0988	0.0841	0.0989
	0.2	0.05	0.80	84	72	78	75	72	0.8052	0.8036	0.8031	0.8007	0.8032	0.0378	0.0565	0.0462	0.0375	0.0465
			0.90	111	102	108	102	96	0.9001	0.9033	0.9012	0.9015	0.9009	0.0349	0.0535	0.0444	0.0434	0.0497
		0.10	0.80	61	54	60	54	50	0.8023	0.8067	0.8046	0.8045	0.8038	0.0654	0.1054	0.0853	0.0934	0.0994
			0.90	89	76	82	82	76	0.9029	0.9031	0.9004	0.9029	0.9031	0.0771	0.1118	0.0921	0.0834	0.0955
0.75	0.1	0.05	0.80	215	193	226	200	196	0.8019	0.8002	0.8001	0.8012	0.8017	0.0399	0.0505	0.0460	0.0444	0.0496
			0.90	289	269	300	277	271	0.9001	0.9003	0.9009	0.9010	0.9003	0.0408	0.0505	0.0494	0.0140	0.0495
		0.10	0.80	162	142	166	150	143	0.8016	0.8022	0.8007	0.8021	0.8002	0.0803	0.1003	0.0915	0.0728	0.0993
			0.90	226	207	236	213	207	0.9001	0.9009	0.9012	0.9006	0.9009	0.0837	0.0997	0.0919	0.0284	0.0998
	0.2	0.05	0.80	45	34	53	40	37	0.8067	0.8056	0.8103	0.8297	0.8007	0.0298	0.0550	0.0459	0.0453	0.0492
			0.90	57	48	68	53	51	0.9007	0.9019	0.9007	0.9040	0.9041	0.0326	0.0553	0.0459	0.0195	0.0476
		0.10	0.80	34	26	41	30	29	0.8056	0.8043	0.8081	0.8035	0.8109	0.0622	0.1022	0.0799	0.0980	0.0929
			0.90	46	37	56	41	38	0.9040	0.9007	0.9045	0.9041	0.9022	0.0634	0.1060	0.0777	0.0960	0.0989

Note: = effect size. F = fisher's exact test. Z = asymptotic z‐test. J = single‐stage Jung's test. B = Barnard's unconditional test. mJ = modified Jung test with balanced sample size.

When  > 0.50, the modified Jung test is still more efficient than Jung's single‐stage and Fisher's exact tests (reductions in n of 9.7% to 32.1% and 6.2% to 17.4%, respectively). These results, on conjunction with the controlled type I error rates (for a properly or poorly defined ), indicate that the modified Jung test is preferable over the other approaches for scenarios where  ≥ 0.50.

The Jung type tests are generally more efficient than Barnard's unconditional test across all scenarios. The modified Jung test tends to achieve a type I error rate closer to the specified level as compared to Barnard's test, which may explain the improved efficiency.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE

As a real‐world illustration of the modified Jung test, we consider a randomized phase II trial of the addition of Bevacizumab to chemotherapy in the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia. In this study, the complete response (CR) rate was compared between the chemotherapy alone and chemotherapy plus Bevacizumab arms using Fisher's exact test. The historic CR rate for the chemotherapy alone arm was 55%, while they expected a 15% increase by adding Bevacizumab. The study design (n = 85 per arm) achieved only 72.1% power at a one‐sided significance level of 0.10. The study enrolled a total of n = 171 evaluable subjects over 30 months and concluded that there was no statistically significant difference in the CR rate.

A study design based on the modified Jung test would require only n = 72 subjects per arm and enrollment could be completed in approximately 25.3 months (assuming similar enrollment rates); a significant savings in both cost (approximately $1,547,000 in savings based on recent cost estimates ) and time. The study designs based on Jung's single‐stage or Barnard's tests would require only n = 80 or n = 73 subjects per arm, respectively. An efficiency over Fisher's exact test, but less efficient than that of the modified Jung test.

The observed CR rate for the chemotherapy alone arm was 0.65, larger than the 0.55 specified in the design phase. Therefore, the actual type I error rate associated with Jung's design is not as specified in the design phase: design = 0.088 versus actual  = 0.076. For a study design using the modified Jung test, the actual type I error rate ( = 0.095) is nearly equivalent to that of the design phase ( = 0.099) and closer to the target α of 0.10.

DISCUSSION

In a time where the FDA fast track designation may lead to more randomized phase II studies, it is important to develop efficient, yet robust, statistical tools to control study costs and timelines. This article presents a novel and efficient test that evaluates the following hypotheses about proportions: versus ; which are in line with the traditional single‐arm phase II trials. The Jung type tests were generally more efficient and powerful than the standard Fisher's exact test, and comparable to Barnard's unconditional exact test. As compared to Barnard's test, this approach does rely on an additional assumption regarding π0. However, we demonstrated that minor misspecification of π0 does not have a dramatic impact on the operating characteristics of the proposed test. The single‐stage Jung test was the most efficient test when  < 0.5; however, there is potential for inflated type I errors when is incorrectly specified. Our modified Jung test was the most efficient when  ≥ 0.5, which may provide this test with a niche in the setting of evaluating modifications to already effective treatments (e.g., adding immunotherapy to an existing treatment regimen). Additionally, this approach utilized a test statistic such that the type I error is effectively bounded, even under an incorrectly specified . As with the Jung test, , this approach can be extended to multi‐stage designs (ex. two‐stage design) based on Simon type optimization criterion. However, this becomes computationally intensive unless pre‐specified futility criteria are utilized at the interim analysis, as in Reference 12.

In conclusion, the modified Jung test for comparing two binomial proportions would allow us to efficiently evaluate candidate treatments (especially when  ≥ 0.5) in a manner that is relatively robust to assumptions made in the design phase.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest for this work.