On the relation between loudness and the increased song frequency of urban birds.

Songbirds often sing at higher frequency (pitch) in urban, noise-polluted areas, which reduces acoustic masking by low-frequency anthropogenic noise. Such frequency shifts, however, are less efficient at overcoming background noise than simply singing louder. Therefore, it was suggested that high-frequency singing might not be a functional adjustment to noise, but a physiological consequence of singing louder (also known as the Lombard effect). We tested for the first time the main tenet of this hypothesis, for birdsong whether increasing sound amplitude has a concomitant effect on song frequency, using a representative species with higher urban minimum frequency, the dark-eyed junco, Junco hyemalis. The frequency bandwidth of songs and syllables increased with amplitude, involving lower minimum frequency in louder songs and syllables. Therefore, louder singing does not explain the higher minimum frequency of urban dark-eyed juncos. Amplitude and peak frequency were weakly positively related across but not within songs, suggesting that increased frequency is not an obligatory outcome of singing louder. Instead, birds may adjust both amplitude and frequency in response to changing noise or motivation across songs. Our results suggest that adjustments in song frequency and amplitude are largely independent and, thus, can be complementary rather than alternative vocal adjustments to noise. We discuss oscine vocal physiology and details of the behaviour of urban birds, both of which we argue are consistent with the increased frequency of urban birdsong generally being a functional adjustment to noise, rather than a consequence of singing louder.