Microbial regulation of organismal energy homeostasis.

The gut microbiome has emerged as a key regulator of host metabolism. Here we review the various mechanisms through which the gut microbiome influences the energy metabolism of its host, highlighting the complex interactions between gut microbes, their metabolites and host cells. Among the most important bacterial metabolites are short-chain fatty acids, which serve as a direct energy source for host cells, stimulate the production of gut hormones and act in the brain to regulate food intake. Other microbial metabolites affect systemic energy expenditure by influencing thermogenesis and adipose tissue browning. Both direct and indirect mechanisms of action are known for specific metabolites, such as bile acids, branched chain amino acids, indole propionic acid and endocannabinoids. We also discuss the roles of specific bacteria in the production of specific metabolites and explore how external factors, such as antibiotics and exercise, affect the microbiome and thereby energy homeostasis. Collectively, we present a large body of evidence supporting the concept that gut microbiota-based therapies can be used to modulate host metabolism, and we expect to see such approaches moving from bench to bedside in the near future.