Bio-processing of algal bio-refinery: a review on current advances and future perspectives.

Microalgae biomass contains various useful bio-active components. Microalgae derived biodiesel has been researched for almost two decades. However, sole biodiesel extraction from microalgae is time-consuming and is not economically feasible due to competitive fossil fuel prices. Microalgae also contains proteins and carbohydrates in abundance. Microalgae are likewise utilized to extract high-value products such as pigments, anti-oxidants and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids which are useful in cosmetic, pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industry. These compounds can be extracted simultaneously or sequentially after biodiesel extraction to reduce the total expenditure involved in the process. This approach of bio-refinery is necessary to promote microalgae in the commercial market. Researchers have been keen on utilizing the bio-refinery approach to exploit the valuable components encased by microalgae. Apart from all the beneficial components housed by microalgae, they also help in reducing the anthropogenic CO2 levels of the atmosphere while utilizing saline or wastewater. These benefits enable microalgae as a potential source for bio-refinery approach. Although life-cycle analysis and economic assessment do not favor the use of microalgae biomass feedstock to produce biofuel and co-products with the existing techniques, this review still aims to highlight the beneficial components of microalgae and their importance to humans. In addition, this article also focuses on current and future aspects of improving the feasibility of bio-processing for microalgae bio-refinery.

Introduction

The booming world population, climate change, depletion of fossil fuels and ever increasing demand for food and energy are some of the concerns of the century [1]. The ever-increasing dependence on nonrenewable fuel sources has sparked an interest in securing alternative sustainable options when the fossil fuels run dry. The main external source of energy to Earth is from the Sun. The major part of this energy is harnessed by cultivating oil crops to photosynthetically convert solar energy into fuel [2]. Researchers have looked into crops such as sugar cane for n class="Chemical">bioethanol, soybean, palm oil and rape seeds for bio-diesel to secure the future demands via renewable sources. A second generation of biofuels were experimented by utilizing residual waste from agricultural biomass. Although, these biofuels possess various drawbacks, one of them was the insufficient or irregular supply of the biomass required for fuel production [3]. In addition, these crops compete with the resources required for food security such as fertile land and freshwater. In the current scenario, only specific parts or compounds of these oil crops/plants are utilized for biofuel generation [4]. To overcome these bottlenecks, an approach of bio-refinery is required to exploit all the components of the biomass. The concept of bio-refinery for extracting various products from biomass is similar to the conventional refinery of a petroleum industry. Although, in bio-refinery, the raw material used is biomass of either crops, plants or microalgae [5]. Additionally, these bio-refineries should be energy efficient in order to be feasible [6]. The optimization of economics is crucial in the bio-refinery of any raw material. In the past few years, various plants and crops have been evaluated for a bio-refinery approach to extract useful products by utilizing suitable technology [7].

Nonetheless, the void created by drastic depletion of fossil fuels cannot be filled by traditional oil crops. Therefore, a third generation of biofuels derived from micron class="Species">algae biomass have emerged in the last decade [8,9]. The various routes of biofuel production from microalgae are depicted in Figure 1. Compared to conventional oil-crops, microalgae can be cultivated on non-arable land with saline, brackish water or wastewater as a medium [10]. Microalgae species are reported to have high efficiency for photosynthetic conversion of sunlight compared to the first and second-generation biofuel sources [11]. The microalgae biomass can be directly converted to bio-fuel via four techniques. They are bio-chemical conversion, thermochemical conversion, transesterification and microbial fuel cell. The choice of selecting a suitable process depends on various factors such as specification of the project, type and availability of crude biomass feedstock and budget of the project. The biochemical process involves the biological processing of microalgae feedstock into biofuels. This conversion includes fermentation, anaerobic digestion and photo-biological hydrogen generation. Fermentation of microalgae to alcohol yields bio-ethanol. The fraction of microalgae containing cellulose, starch and other organic components will be transformed to alcohols via fermentation with yeast [12]. Anaerobic digestion could also convert microalgal biomass into bio-gas. The biogas produced from microalgae is considered to possess high energy content and recovery when compared to biodiesel production from microalgal lipids. The composition of biogas obtained via anaerobic digestion ranges from 50-70% CH4, 20-30% CO2, 0.1–0.5% H2S and trace amounts of water, N2, NH3, H2 and SO2 [13]. Due to the high cost of biodiesel production from microalgae, anaerobic digestion is being favored [14]. In photo-biological hydrogen production, microalgae convert water into hydrogen and oxygen. Although, the enzyme responsible for biological hydrogen production reaction (hydrogenase) is inhibited by oxygen. To tackle this drawback, a temporal separation method has been proposed to separate hydrogen and oxygen [15]. Melis et al., developed a temporal separation method for Chlamydomonas reinhardtii [16]. In this study, the separation of oxygen and hydrogen production was conducted by modifying two phases. In the first phase, the microalgae fixed atmospheric CO2 via photosynthesis and thus produced carbohydrates and oxygen. This was followed by the second phase in which the culture medium was deprived of Sulfur which inhibited photosynthesis and subsequently oxygen generation. In these conditions, hydrogenase enzyme favored hydrogen production.

Figure 1.

Bio-fuel production from microalgae biomass.

Thermochemical conversion is the thermal decomposition of microalgae biomass to obtain various types of fuel. Table 1 discusses the application of thermochemical conversion of micron class="Species">algae. Thermochemical conversion of microalgae includes pyrolysis, gasification, liquefaction and direct combustion. In pyrolysis, microalgae biomass is thermally degraded in the absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis of microalgae biomass is capable of producing medium to low calorific value biofuels in a large-scale facility. In the process of gasification, the organic substrate is converted to syngas by chemical biotransformation. Syngas is utilized as an intermediate for the production of various bio-fuels or can be directly utilized in turbines and engines. An optimization study conducted by Raheem et al. utilized a high temperature tubular furnace at 703°C, heating rate of 22°C/min, biomass loading of 1.45 g and equivalent ratio of 0.29 to obtain H2 yield of 41.75 mol%, CO yield of 18.63 mol%, CO2 yield of 24.40 mol% and CH4 yield of 15.19 mol% [17]. Liquefaction is a process of bioconversion of wet microalgae biomass to bio-fuel. This process utilizes a low temperature of about 300-350 C and high pressure of 5–20 MPa in the presence of hydrogen and a catalyst yields bio-oil [18]. In combustion, microalgae biomass is combusted directly in the presence of oxygen to yield heat, water, and carbon dioxide. The electricity is produced by operating a steam engine with the heat produced and the efficiency can be increased by coupling it with conventional coal operated power plants [19]. Transesterification is the conversion of triglycerides found in micro-algal lipids to fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). The process involves the reaction of triglycerides with methanol to produce FAME and glycerol. The process is enhanced by either acid or alkali catalyst. Transesterification is described in detail in section 2.1.

Table 1.

Application of thermochemical conversion on microalgal feedstock.

Thermochemical conversion technology	Microalgae species	Process conditions	Results	Ref
Slow pyrolysis	Chlorella protothecoides	1 g of sample, 5.5 ml stainless steel autoclave, 200-600°C, 5–120 min	Maximum oil yield of 52% at 500°C and 5 mins of operation time	[124]
	Nannochloropsis sp. after lipid extraction	1 g of sample, HZSM-5/sample (0/1-1/1), 300-500°C, 10°C/min for 2h, nitrogen at 30ml/min	Maximum oil yield of 31.1% at 400°C. Higher heating value of 32.2 MJ/kg and lower oxygen content compared to direct pyrolysis.	[125]
	Defatted & raw Scenedesmus sp. and Spirulina	100 g of sample, 450°C at 50°C/min, 2 h, nitrogen as carrier gas at 100ml/min	Higher heating value in range of 35.2–36.7 MJ/kg observed. Bio-oil yield in the range of 24-31%	[126]
	Tetraselmus chui	2.4 g of sample, maximum temperature of 500°C, 20 min with 10°C/min, helium carrier gas at 50ml/min in fixed bed infrared pyrolysis oven	The bio-oil obtained contains various alkanes, alkenes, aldehydes, amines, fatty acids and phenols. The bio-oil and bio-char exhibited high heating value of 28 MJ/kg and 14.5 MJ/kg.	[127]
	Tetraselmus chui, Chlorella vulgaris, Chaetocerous muelleri, Dunaliella tertiolera	100 mg of sample, max temperature of 750°C, 10°C/min, helium carrier gas at 50 ml/min	Maximum bio-oil yield for Tetraselmus chui of 43% at 500°C	[128]
Fast pyrolysis	Chlorella protothecoides	200 g of sample, 4g/min, 400-600°C, nitrogen carrier gas at 0.4m3/h, vapor residence time of 2-3s in fluid bed reactor	Maximum bio-oil yield of 57.9% at 450°C. High heating value of 41 MJ/kg at low density and viscosity of 0.92 kg/l and 0.02 Pa.s with low oxygen content.	[129]
	Chlorella protothecoides and Microcystis aeruginosa	200 g of sample, 4g/min, 500°C, nitrogen carrier gas at 0.4m3/h, vapor residence time of 2-3s in fluid bed reactor	High heating value of 29 MJ/kg of bio-oil which is 1.4 times compared to heating value of wood	[130]
Microwave-assisted pyrolysis	Chlorella spp.	30 g of sample, 6 g solid char as catalyst, 500-1250W (462-627°C), 20 mins, nitrogen carrier gas at 500 ml/min	Maximum bio-oil yield of 28.6% at 750W. The high heating value of bio-oil was 30.7 MJ/kg.	[131]
	Chlorella vulgaris	30 g of sample, 750-2250W, 5% activated carbon catalyst, nitrogen carrier gas at 300 ml/min	Maximum bio-oil yield of 35.83 wt% and bio-gas yield of 52.37% obtained at 1500W and 2250W, respectively. The activated carbon catalyst enhanced the yield.	[132]
Hydrothermal liquefaction	Chlorella vulgaris, Nannochloropsis oculata, Porphyridium cruentum and Spirulina	3 g of sample, 75 ml reactor, 27 ml of distilled water,1M Na2CO3 or 1M formic acid, 350°C for 1h	The high heating value ranged from 22.8 to 37.1 MJ/kg with bio-oil yields in range of 25-40%.	[133]
	Dunaliella tertiolecta	7 g of sample, 100 ml stainless steel autoclave with magnetic stirrer, 70 ml distilled water, 0-10% Na2CO3 as catalyst, 280-380°C, 10–90 mins of operation time	Maximum bio-oil yield of 25.8% at 360°C, 50min and 5% Na2CO3. High heating value of 30.74 MJ/kg	[134]
	Nannochloropsis sp.	4.27g of microalgae paste (79% water content), 200-500°C, 60 min in 35 ml stainless-steel reactor	Maximum bio-oil yield of 43% and highest heating value of 39 MJ/kg at 350°C	[135]
	Spirulina platensis	1.8L reactor fitted with agitation impeller (300 rpm), 500-750ml algal slurry with 10-50% solids, 200-380°C, 0–120 min, nitrogen carrier gas with initial pressure of 2 MPa	Maximum bio-oil yield of 39.9% at 350°C, 20% solids and 60 min	[133]

Microalgae are photosynthetic species that require sunlight to convert nutrients present in the medium (i.e. n class="Chemical">water) to bioactive components in their cell structure [20]. Due to the suspension nature of the medium, microalgae growth can be controlled and automated with better precision. Microalgae can be cultivated with three major sources, including water, sunlight and CO2. These resources are abundant and inexpensive. For the cultivation of microalgae, the resources required do not compete with conventional crops. Nevertheless, the culture medium needs to be nutrient-rich and contain various salts essential for the growth of microalgae [21]. However, these nutrients can be obtained by employing household or industrial wastewater. Moreover, microalgae are able to grow and assimilate CO2 under high CO2 concentration such as the flue gas of a thermal power plant [22]. This coupled with the high value-added product output, portrays the promising potential of microalgae as a sustainable source of energy for the future [23]. The bio-active components in microalgae are majorly composed of lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and traces of anti-oxidants and pigments. The cell constituents of various microalgae are listed in Table 2. A bio-refinery approach is necessary for the complete valorization of microalgae biomass. The benefits provided by microalgae are noticeable at the cellular level as well. As described in Table 2, it is evident that microalgae biomass majorly encompasses a high concentration of lipids, proteins, carbohydrates. Microalgae cultivation and harvesting processes are both energy and labor-intensive activities. The harvesting and extracting of valuable components are expensive in terms of capital and maintenance costs. Therefore, optimization with respect to energy and expenditure for obtaining these products is crucial [24]. The lipids extracted can be utilized for biofuel production while proteins and whole biomass can be consumed as feed in livestock rearing and aquaculture. Additionally, carbohydrates obtained from microalgae can be fermented to produce bioethanol. The carbohydrates can be used as an alternative carbon source to lignocellulose biomass or simple sugars in the fermentation industry [25]. The unsaturated long-chain fatty acids extracted from microalgae exhibit important health benefits including potential anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic effect on humans [26,27]. Apart from the three major fractions, microalgae contains various pigments such as chlorophylls, carotenoids, phycocyanin and astaxanthin [28]. These are employed in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry [29,30].

Table 2.

Microalgae cell composition.

	Composition (% dry matter)
Microalgae Species	Protein	Lipids	Carbohydrates	Reference(s)
Anabena cylindrica	43-56	4-7	25-30	[136]
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae	62	3	23	[137]
Chaetoceros calcitrans	36	15	27	[39]
Chlamydomonas rheinhardii	48	21	17	[38]
Chlorella vulgaris	51-58	14-22	12-17	[138]
Chlorella pyrenoidosa	57	2	26	[39]
Chlorella protothecoides	-	-	50	[139]
Chlorella zofingiensis	-	65.1	-	[140]
Chlorococcum sp.	-	39.8-41	-	[141]
Diacronema vlkianum	57	6	32	[142]
Dunaliela salina	57	6	32	[39]
Dunaliela bioculata	49	8	4	[41]
Euglena gracilis	39-61	22-38	14-18	[39,41]
Haematococcus pluvialis	48	15	27	[142]
Isochrysis galbana	50-56	12-14	10-17	[39]
Porphyridium cruentum	28-39	9-14	40-57	[39,41]
Prymnesium parvum	28-45	22-38	25-33	[41]
Scenedesmus obliquus	50-56	12-14	10-17	[38,42]
Scenedesmus dimorphus	8-18	16-40	21-52	[39,41]
Scenedesmus quadricauda	47	1.9	21-52	[41]
Spirogyra sp.	6-20	11-21	33-64	[41]
Spirulina maxima	60-71	6-7	13-16	[39]
Spirulina platensis	46-63	4-9	8-14	[39]
Synechococcus sp.	63	11	15	[38]
Tetraselmis maculata	52	3	15	[41]

It is evident that microalgae encase numerous beneficial and high-value components. Although current industrial practices only focused on single product extraction, this review discusses the current extraction practices and focuses on updating the current understanding of bio-processing in the micron class="Species">algae bio-refinery. This review highlights the basic processes of extracting bio-active components from microalgae biomass. The value-added products explained in this review include lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). This review also emphasizes on the economic feasibility and life-cycle analysis on microalgae bio-refinery. The challenges faced in implementing the bio-refinery approach to microalgae biomass are also mentioned and future prospects of microalgae biomass feedstock are addressed.

Bio-refinery of microalgae

Bio-processing of microalgae is utilizing various processes to extract bioactive components such as n class="Chemical">lipids, proteins, carbohydrates. The bio-refinery approach is a process of obtaining energy and other bio-active components from microalgae biomass as feedstock. The bio-refinery of microalgae is a promising approach to alleviate global warming caused by emission of polluting greenhouse gases like CO2 in the environment [31]. However, in the microalgae bio-refinery, the separation of different fragments without any significant loss of other components is crucial. This issue can be solved by employing scalable, low-cost and energy-efficient separation techniques [32]. Microalgae biomass is a great raw material for bio-refinery approach as it can yield multiple components suitable for various industries such as food, energy, pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industry.

Regardless of the huge potential portrayed by the microalgae biomass, the current bottlenecks of an algal bio-refinery needs to be highlighted. The current industrial micron class="Species">algae biomass production is roughly 15,000 tons/year [2]. This is very low compared to the demands required in the industry. A huge factor governing this low production rate is the high cost involved in cultivation, harvesting and extraction. Therefore, microalgae is currently employed in extracting high-value niche products [33]. Bio-fuel production is on the lower end of the spectrum due to the strict competition with fossil fuels. The price of bio-fuel doesn’t necessarily have to be lower than its nonrenewable counterpart. However, the biofuel production needs to be performed at a lower energy expenditure. Unfortunately, this constraint has not been successfully overcome. Many studies have been conducted in investigating the production of value-added products from microalgae [2]. The major stages of microalgae bio-refinery are upstream and downstream processing. The upstreaming process mainly consists of microalgae cultivation. The raw materials involved in the upstream process are nutrients, water, light and CO2 [24]. The nutrients such as phosphorous and nitrogen govern the growth of microalgae. An optimum amount of nutrient supply will ensure higher biomass production and a shorter maturation period [34]. The source of illumination also affects the growth rate of microalgae. Several studies were conducted which confirmed that illumination via artificial lighting such as LED is more effective than direct sunlight for microalgae cultivation [35,36].

The downstream processing of microalgae biomass consists of harvesting, extraction and purification of the value-added products. The conventional extraction techniques include mechanical methods such as bead beating and blending, high-pressure homogenization and ultrasound and chemical methods such as solvent extraction. Other processes such as freezing-thawing, autoclaving and supercritical fluids have also been utilized [37]. These processes are complex, involve multiple steps and are costly. The economic burden incurred due to these processes is huge and extraction of various high-value products from microalgal biomass should be viable at industrial scale [25]. The micron class="Species">algae biomass can be majorly divided in three fractions, including oil, protein and carbohydrate fraction. Figure 2 focuses on possible product streams to obtain numerous products from a single energy flow. The by-products or residual wastes obtained can be either recycled in the culture medium as nutrients or used to produce power in the form of combined heat and power (CHP) plant in the bio-refinery.

Figure 2.

Microalgae bio-refinery model.

Lipids fraction

Microalgae species such as n class="Species">Chlorella vulgaris, Scenedesmus spp. and Spirogyra sp. are reported to accumulate lipids in the range of 15-40% of their dry matter [38-42]. However, at extreme environments microalgae can accumulate lipids as high as 70-90% of their dry matter [43,44]. The accumulation of higher lipid content depends on the stress levels imposed on the microalgae culture while cultivation [9]. When the culture medium contains a high carbon-nitrogen (C/N) ratio, the nitrogen is exhausted faster and lipids are accumulated by microalgae due to the absence of nitrogen in the culture broth [45,46]. The lipid productivity vastly depends on high culture pH, high salinity, high temperature and limited nitrogen source [47]. The lipids from microalgae are classified into two categories. The first type contains fatty acids with 14–19 carbon atom chains while the second one contains more than 19 carbon atom chains. The former type is usually bio-transformed into biodiesel as it is saturated fatty acid without any double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain. While the latter one is utilized in food industry as poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) as it is unsaturated and contains double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain. Lipid productivity of microalgae is considered to be higher than that of traditional oil-crops. Table 3 lists the typical lipid yield and amount of resources required for it. It is evident from Table 3 that lipids from microalgae biomass are considered favorites for production of biodiesel.

Table 3.

Biodiesel production and characteristics of various sources. Adapted from [94,138].

Type of source	Biomass Oil content (wt %)	Yield (L oil/ha year)	Land required (m2/kg biodiesel year)	Biodiesel production (kg/ha year)
Corn	44	172	66	152
Hemp	33	363	31	321
Soybean	18	636	18	562
Jatropha	28	741	15	656
Camelina	42	915	12	809
Rapseed	41	974	12	862
Sunflower	40	1070	11	946
Castor	48	1307	9	1156
Palm Oil	36	5366	2	4747
Microalgae	30	58,700	0.2	51,927
Microalgae	50	97,800	0.1	86,515
Microalgae	70	136,900	0.1	121,104

Lipids are commercially extracted from micron class="Species">algae via solvents, ultrasonication, electrolysis or microwaves. These processes are energy intensive and utilize hazardous solvents. These methods also have low selectivity and require high temperature [48-50]. There are various solvent-free methods, which are environment-friendly and simple. One of the most promising technique is extraction via super-critical carbon dioxide [51]. This method does not require hazardous solvents and is very selective to the nonpolar lipid fraction of microalgae. This method also allows for further component extraction from residual cell debris [25]. The CO2 engaged in this technique can be recycled in the process. However, due to the super-critical nature of this technique, high capital and maintenance costs are levied on the production. The high costs can be neutralized by converting the remaining cell debris to fertilizer, fish feed or recycled back into microalgae cultivation for higher productivity as this method is solvent-free.

The fragment of lipids that is required for biodiesel production is n class="Chemical">triglycerides (TAGs). These TAGs are transformed to biodiesel by transesterification [52]. The process of transesterification is carried out by reacting methanol with microalgae lipids to obtain glycerol and fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). In the mass balance of transesterification process, 3 moles of FAME and 1 mole of glycerol are obtained with 1 mol of TAG and 3 moles of methanol [53]. The process of transesterification is accelerated by supplementing with an acid catalysis. Alkali-catalyzed reaction is 4000 times faster than the acid-catalyzed reaction [54]. Alkalis such as NaOH and KOH are usually employed in the alkali-catalyzed reaction. However, a saponification reaction might occur due to the occurrence of free fatty acids in the TAGs. Therefore, a lipid-rich high-quality biomass is necessary to prevent such reaction [55]. The upstream processing of microalgae biomass accounts for 65-70% of the biodiesel production process. Acid-catalyzed reactions have slow reaction rates and lower yields compared to alkali catalyzed ones [56]. Due to the slower reaction rate and longer reaction time, acid catalysis is coupled with a base catalyst in a two-step process [57]. In this two-step process, free fatty acids (FFA) are converted to methyl esters via acid catalysts followed by conversion of residual triglycerides to methyl-esters by alkali-catalysts [58-61]. This process is beneficial as it can utilize low-quality feedstock.

Biodiesel production from microalgae biomass is advantageous in various aspects; however, it is not as simple as its traditional counterparts. The processes involved in extraction and purification are complex. Recently numerous studies have been carried out to reduce the intricacies involved in harvesting, extraction and further bio-diesel production. An increase in n class="Chemical">FAME yield up to 84% was observed by using a wet microalgae biomass with 50% (w/w) water content [62]. The co-solvent used was methanol. Another study conducted recently utilized microalgae culture with 90% (w/w) water content to produce biodiesel using hexane and methanol in excess as co-solvents [63]. This process eliminated the extraction process, producing FAME via direct transesterification. A similar study was successful in achieving a 97.3% conversion rate of biodiesel by utilizing Chlorella vulgaris with 71% of water content [64].

Poly-unsaturated fatty acids (n class="Chemical">PUFAs) are part of human cell membrane and function as energy storing compounds and cell signaling molecules [65]. Humans are capable of synthesizing these lipids, however some of the essential lipids must be obtained externally with the help of dietary fats or oils. These lipids are also known as glyco- or phospholipids. They contain two fatty acids chains and a polar head group. The most noteworthy group of phospho- or glycolipids is long chain poly-unsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) [66]. LC-PUFA are fatty acids comprising of three or more double bonds in a chain of 18 or more carbon atoms [67]. They are generally classified in two families, namely, linolenic acids (ω-3 fatty acids) and α-linolenic acids (ω-6 fatty acids). Among the two, ω-3 fatty acids have been reported to have numerous health benefits and has been incorporated in food products [68]. The essential fatty acids (EFA) in ω-3 PUFA family are α-linolenic acid (ALA; 18:3), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA; 22:5), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5). The LC-PUFA composition of various microalgae species are described in Table 4.

Table 4.

LC-PUFA composition of various microalgae species. Adapted from [143].

LC-PUFA	Chlorella vulgaris (green)	Chlorella vulgaris (orange)	Diacronema vlkianum	Haematococcus pluvialis	Isochrysis galbana	Spirulina maxima
ALA	661 ± 12	3665 ± 1	14 ± 1	3981 ± 2	421 ± 5	40 ± 0.1
DHA	16 ± 1	80 ± 1	836 ± 41	-	1156 ± 40	-
EPA	19 ± 1	39 ± 1	3212 ± 57	579 ± 6	4875 ± 108	-
Total ω-3 PUFA	971 ± 14	4781 ± 2	5407 ± 146	5770 ± 14	6461 ± 153	58 ± 35

Consumption of ω-3 fatty acids have shown effectiveness in the prevention of various diseases such as n class="Disease">arthritis, asthma, cancer, cardiovascular disorders, inflammatory bowel disorders, depression, schizophrenia and type-2 diabetes [67]. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recognized that ω-3 PUFA containing foods, particularly DHA and EPA, to reduce the risk of coronary heart diseases [69]. DHA plays an important role in development of infants, especially brain and retina [70]. Dietary supplementation with DHA is considered as a vital nutrient during pregnancy and breastfeeding as it actively contributes to the development of nervous system of the young fetus. It can also affect the cognitive function and visual acuteness of the child [71].

The main source of LC-PUFA is fish and n class="Chemical">fish oil. Due to the potential contamination of fishes with toxins, several other alternatives are required. Over-exploitation of fishes, unpleasant odor and taste and their oxidative instability are other factors for this shift [67]. The primary producers of LC-PUFA are marine microalgae and contain these fatty acids in the purest form. They are accumulated through various tropic food chains. During this process, various changes occur in the algal lipid content thus affect the dietary make-up of the mollusks, shells, larvae and fishes [72]. Due to the rapid global warming and ocean acidification, there are reports of reduced supply of these fatty acids in higher food chain [73]. Therefore, extracting LC-PUFA from microalgae is a promising alternative. Ryckebosch et al., reported that to achieve daily ω-3 PUFA intake of 250 mg, 0.8 g of fish oil is required. The amount of Nannochloropsis sp. oil required is in range of 1.3–1.4 g oil per day [74]. This definitely shows the potential of microalgae as an alternative to fish oil (especially for vegetarians/vegans) as the required amount is less than half tablespoon a day.

Carbohydrate fraction

Microalgae are reported to contain n class="Chemical">carbohydrates as high as 50% dry matter (Table 2). The carbohydrates secreted by microalgae majorly consist of monosaccharides such as glucose, fructose, mannose, galactose and polysaccharides such as starch and cellulose. The glucose and starch extracted from microalgae are utilized in the production of biofuels such as biohydrogen and bioethanol [75]. However, the polysaccharides majorly function as structural molecules and for storage purposes. Microalgal polysaccharides are reported to activate the function of macrophages and induce production of nitric oxide, reactive oxidative species and various cytokines thus modulating the immune system [76]. These macrophages are able to secrete chemokines and cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL-6, IL-β). These compounds signal the inflammatory and immunomodulation reactions [77]. Tannin-Spitz et al., reported that major function of cell-wall sulfated polysaccharide obtained from red microalgae Porphyridium sp. is to provide protection from external oxidative stresses [78]. Matsui et al., reported that sulfated polysaccharides obtained from Porphyridium sp. have an ability to hinder the adhesion and migration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes thus exhibiting anti-inflammatory properties [79]. The immunomodulating properties of sulfated polysaccharides from Haematococcus lacustris are evident as they stimulate the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokine from murine macrophages. Microalgal sulfated polysaccharides also exhibit wide spectrum antiviral activity due to their interactions with surface molecules of virus cells. This not only inhibits the growth of host-type cells such as virus but also blocks internal cellular fusion [80]. Therefore, sulfated polysaccharides have various medical applications due to their pharmaceutical and therapeutic benefits including antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antiviral activities [29]. Table 5 summarizes the pharmacological properties of microalgae.

Table 5.

Pharmacological effects of micro-algal carbohydrates.

Microalgae species	Type of carbohydrate	Pharmacological effects	Ref
Chlorella stigmatophora	Crude polysaccharide	Anti-inflammatory, immuno-modulating	[144]
Chlorella vulgaris	Crude polysaccharide	Anti-oxidant	[145]
Gyrodinium impudicum KG-03	Sulfonated polysaccharide	Anti-viral	[80,146]
Haematococcus lacustris	Water-soluble polysaccharide	Immuno-stimulating	[77]
Phaeodactylum tricornutum	Crude polysaccharide	Anti-inflammatory, immuno-modulating	[144]
Porphyridium sp.	Crude polysaccharide	Anti-oxidant	[78]
	Sulfonated polysaccharide	Anti-inflammatory	[79]
Rhodella reticulata	Extracellular polysaccharide	Anti-oxidant	[147]
Scenedesmus quadricuada	Crude polysaccharide	Anti-oxidant	[145]

Apart from pharmaceutical benefits, microalgal carbohydrates are mainly utilized for n class="Chemical">bioethanol production by fermentation. In that case, microalgae are hydrolyzed using acids or alkalis to produce mono-sugars in the saccharification process [81], which is usually the rate-limiting step in bioethanol production [82]. The hydrolysis of complex polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch is mainly carried by chemical methods or enzymatic methods. Chemical hydrolysis or acid-catalyzed hydrolysis is rapid and the chemicals used are cheaper than enzymes; however, they create various residual byproducts that potentially inhibit the next step of fermentation. On the other hand, enzymatic hydrolysis requires less energy but it is highly selective and thus requires high amounts of enzymes for effective hydrolysis [83]. The monomers obtained after saccharification are fermented to ethanol using yeast, bacteria or fungi. The conventional process includes separate hydrolysis and fermentation or simultaneous hydrolysis and fermentation, which involve different micro-organisms and unit operations. Several studies have also been conducted for the production of bioethanol by hydrolysis and fermentation by microalgae itself [84,85]. Hirano et al. [86] observed that intracellular ethanol production is possible in Chlamydomonas reinhadtii. The culture was kept under anaerobic and dark conditions. This process also eliminated the expensive step of microalgae harvesting, but the ethanol yield and production rate were lower than the conventional two-step process [82].

The polysaccharides extracted from micron class="Species">algae are utilized as stabilizers, thickening agents, emulsifiers, cosmetics, water-soluble lubricants, textiles, clinical drugs and in food and beverage industry [87]. The extracellular polysaccharides found in microalgae are beneficial with respect to bio-processing as cell disruption is not necessary to extract these polysaccharides. Despite the multiple advantages of microalgal polysaccharides, it has not been successful in the commercial market due to the cheaper alternatives like xanthan gum, agar, guar gum and carrageenan [88].

Protein fraction

The microalgae biomass consists of 40-70% of proteins, although their quality is determined by its amino acids composition. n class="Species">Human body requires nine essential amino acids (EAA) which are not synthesized in-situ. Conventional sources of proteins include meat, dairy, eggs, pulses and soybean. Although compared to the conventional sources, microalgae The potential of microalgae biomass to produce high-value bio-active components enables it as a promising raw material for bio-processing. This review focused on obtaining various products from microalgae via the bio-refinery approach. The lipids extracted can be utilized as health supplements in form of PUFA in addition to biodiesel production; while proteins and carbohydrates can be used in diets and in the fermentation industry, respectively. Furthermore, the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry rely heavily on the niche items extracted from microalgae such as pigments and vitamins. Various technologies are being investigated for obtaining the components with a high production rate, ease of operation, higher yield and lower cost. However, these processes are still in the infant stage. Life-cycle analysis and economic assessment of current large-scale processes with a single product or two products system from microalgae deem it unfeasible. The possibility of producing multiple bio-active components from a single microalgae strain has attracted the attention of researchers to optimize and streamline the material and energy balances. However, with current downstream processing techniques, multiple product extraction is not economical as the whole bio-refinery creates more emissions. This issue can be tackled by research and development of simple and cheap downstream processing technologies. Hence, in-depth investigation and further research in microalgae bio-refinery are still necessary prior to commercialization.

reported to be above-par source with respect to EAA composition. It has the potential to meet the protein requirements for the growing population as it uses the least amount of land while producing a higher yield compared to traditional meat sources. A Life-Cycle Assessment (n class="Chemical">LCA) conducted by de Vries et al., concluded that microalgae-based food products require less than 2.5 sqm of land per kg of protein whereas, pork, chicken and beef require 47–64, 42–52 and 144–258 sqm of land per kg of protein, respectively, [89,90]. Additionally, microalgae can be cultivated in non-arable land and potentially use wastewater or seawater instead of freshwater. Their raw material requirements are lower than plant-based proteins such as pea protein, soybean protein [91]. Proteins are extracted from microalgae via various methods. The conventional extraction process utilized filtration or centrifuge to obtain the cellular components from soluble compounds in the liquid phase. These processes resulted in the loss of functional properties of extracted proteins. Although, utilization of solvent extraction, retains the functional properties of the proteins. In this process, the soluble proteins are obtained by liquid-liquid extraction after cell-disruption [24]. The proteins are solubilized in organic solvents containing surfactants. The proteins are transferred from the aqueous phase to the organic phase via electrostatic interactions between proteins and surfactants [92]. The parameters driving this process are pH, concentration and type of salts utilized and type of organic solvents [25]. There has been an attempt to obtain proteins via super-critical CO2 extraction which eliminated the use of toxic solvents [93].

Life-cycle analysis (LCA) and techno-economic analysis

Microalgae biomass encompasses high-value products while utilizing natural and anthropogenic resources. The potential of micron class="Species">algae biomass of producing high value-added products have grabbed the attention of various research groups involving biofuels, food & feed as well as pharmaceuticals [94]. These traits deem microalgae feedstock as a suitable candidate for exploitation via bio-refinery approach. However, before further research is conducted for potential industrialization, a thorough life-cycle analysis (LCA) is necessary. LCA quantifies all the resources that are required in microalgae cultivation, harvesting, extraction, and purification and calculates the emissions and its effect on nature from the same process. In addition, the economic analysis of the whole bio-refinery approach is crucial to understand the feasibility of microalgae as a feedstock. These tools provide an understanding of current scenarios and generate various pathways to achieve commercial industrialization of microalgal bio-refineries.

The evaluation of LCA is conducted on the basis of two indicators, namely, Global Warming Potential and Net Energy Ratio. Global Warming Potential or GWP is quantified by the amount of n class="Chemical">CO2 emitted per unit of energy. Ideally, all the greenhouse gases are considered for this quantification but literature data are limited to CO2 emissions. Positive results of biofuel production from microalgae are however limited to hydrothermal liquefaction at carbon credit of −220 g CO2-eq MJ-1 compared to conventional diesel with carbon credit of +15 g CO2-eqMJ-1 [95]. The Net Energy Ratio (NER) is evaluated based on the total energy flow of the process. It is the ratio between the energy required to obtain the final products from microalgae and the total energy stored in the final product. The life-cycle analysis has been carried out in various studies but is limited to biofuel or bioenergy production from microalgae. Jorquera et al. [96] conducted an LCA on biomass production of Nannochloropsis sp. and evaluated the NER for three different cultivation setups. The NER values were obtained as 8.34, 4.5 and 0.2 for open/raceway ponds, flat reactors, and tubular reactors. However, this study was only based on biomass cultivation and no further product extraction. On the other hand, Tredici et al. [97] conducted LCA of Tetraselmis suecica cultivation with harvesting for biomass production. The study compared NER of flat panel bioreactors with and without a photovoltaic panel. The NER of a bioreactor with the photovoltaic panel was 1.73 compared to 0.82 without the external renewable energy supply. However, these values are still not sufficient when compared to NER of 3.71, 4.11 and 7.57 for soybean, corn, and cassava, respectively.

Recently, Bennion et al. [98] studied NER values of microalgae biofuel production from cultivation until the transportation of biofuel to the fuel station. The NER values in this study ranged from 0.44 to 2. Although these values were high, they are not sufficient when compared to a NER value of 5.55 for fossil fuels. However, the NER values of biofuel production from micron class="Species">algae fluctuate due to different system boundaries and are not comparable to the conventional fossil fuel NER values. Chowdhury et al. [99] conducted LCA on four scenarios based on energy production from microalgae by utilizing dairy waste as a substrate. The four cases studied include anaerobic digestion, biodiesel production, pyrolysis, and enzymatic hydrolysis. These scenarios resulted in NER values of 0.35, 0.48, 0.50 and 0.68, respectively. The authors concluded that the production of biofuel alone is not feasible and thus bio-refinery approach is necessary. An LCA study conducted by Soh at al [100]. Based on energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and the potential of eutrophication concluded that optimizing extraction from a single fraction of microalgae does not result in a positive environmental outcome. It is required to undergo further post-lipid processing of the residual microalgae feedstock to extract valuable niche components such as pigments and PUFA while the starch fraction should be digested anaerobically. This could lead to a much pleasant outcome rather than single product extraction.

Apart from Life Cycle Assessment, the economic feasibility of microalgae-based bio-refinery is also crucial to realize commercial industrialization. Hoffman et al. [101] conducted a comparative economic feasibility study of biodiesel production between Algal Turf Scrubber (ATS) and Open Raceway Ponds (ORP). Their results showed that the biodiesel production cost from ATS and ORP were calculated at $8.34 and $6.27 per gallon of biodiesel, respectively, while these prices are not provided positive economic feasibility. Dasan et al. [102] utilized three different cultivation systems (namely, open pond/raceway pond, bubble column PBR and tubular PBR) to obtain biodiesel and other by-products from a different fraction of micron class="Species">algae feedstock. The economic feasibility analysis based on the production of 100,000 kg of biomass for 340 days of the year concluded that capital cost involved in tubular and bubble column PBRs is higher than the operation cost and accounts for nearly 47.5–86.2% of the total cost. However, in open ponds cultivation system, 45.73% of the total cost is required for operation and maintenance. This study analyzed the production of bioethanol as a by-product, but the complex and costly processes involved in bioethanol production do not favor the economic profitability. In contrast, a bio-refinery economic assessment conducted by Lam et al. [103] predicted that the highest total revenue generated from microalgae biomass is around €31 per kg of dry weight compared to the production cost of €6-7 per kg of dry weight. Although these values can only be achieved when the cost for downstream processing is minimized. Apparently, developing simpler and cost-effective downstream processing techniques is critical to achieve the economic feasibility of microalgae bio-refinery systems.

Challenges and future prospect

The techno-economic evaluation concluded that with the existing downstream-processing techniques, the microalgae bio-refinery approach is not sustainable and feasible. The major hurdle faced by the micron class="Species">algae cultivation process is the limited biomass concentration in the matured algae culture. The maximum biomass concentration in the autotrophic microalgae culture is limited to around 3 g/L compared to 30–100 g/L biomass concentration of heterotrophic bacteria. Microalgae cultivation is also expensive compared to the bacterial fermentation due to the utilization of photobioreactors (PBRs) equipped with artificial light for optimum cultivation parameters. The low biomass concentration of microalgal culture coupled with high downstream processing costs (around 40% of total cost) hinders the success of the bio-refinery approach for effective extraction of all valuable components from microalgae. Gifuni et al. [104] analyzed various studies conducted on microalgae bio-refinery and concluded that cascade extraction was the most suitable approach for the effective utilization of microalgae components. Various studies conducted using cascade extraction utilized a novel approach of extracting high-value-added components such as lutein, astaxanthin and carotene followed by recovery of other by-products such as proteins and carbohydrates [105-108]. In this approach, the costs of microalgae cultivation and extraction are offset by the high-value pigments while extraction of the remaining fraction can be profitable. Ansari et al. [109] conducted a bio-refinery study of microalgae by extracting proteins with aqueous extraction techniques preceded by extraction of high-value products such as pigments and PUFA. The study was conducted with cascade extraction of proteins followed by lipids and carbohydrates. Utilization of mild liquid-based extraction resulted in limited damage to other fractions. This study concluded that recovery of the maximum number of products from microalgae is dependent on the severity of the extraction technology and utilization of wet microalgae paste which reduces the drying costs.

Despite the high market value, the production of algae-based bulk products presents few hurdles. The existing large-scale facilities distribute their produce to the aquaculture industry, animal feed industry or for the production of bioactive components [91]. Individual governments and regulatory authorities hamper the circulation of new micron class="Species">algae products due to their complex rules and regulations on novel food products [110]. This has been a major obstacle in the potential growth spurt of commercially large-scale distribution of microalgae food products. There’s a need for targeted nutrition educational programs for young individuals to convey the importance of microalgae in human diet [111]. Attracting the attention of investors for starting up a new facility is difficult as microalgae products do not have a proven record of high market demand compared to traditional terrestrial crops especially as food products. The cultivation and down-stream processing of traditional protein-based on terrestrial plants are optimized throughout the years as opposed to microalgae protein-based food products. Therefore, further research in cultivation and processing are necessary to obtain a sustainable and profitable market for microalgae food products. The investors, however, look for a long-term record of high market demand and high market value to risk financing in a new venture [68]. A study conducted by Ruiz et al. estimated reduction in cultivation and bio-refining costs up to 10 times per kg of biomass when the facility was upgraded from 1 ha to 100 ha in size [112]. However, such upgrades are not easy to execute. The biomass composition, a critical factor in its integration in food products, is driven by microalgae species and the cultivation conditions [12,113]. The capital-intensive steps are that of dewatering and harvesting. These steps drive the economics of the final product, however, the size of the plant and cultivation medium plays an important role as well [114].

Current large-scale open-pond or lagoon microalgae cultivation and biomass production are based on harvesting micron class="Species">algae from natural habitations [91]. They are cheaper to install and easy to run; however, they have high chances of predator contamination, irregular growth due to varying light and temperatures [115]. The future of microalgae production might be dependent on recently developed compact large-scale photobioreactors (PBRs). These PBRs can be operated at optimized parameters with a minimum risk of contamination. However, they are expensive and in small-scale currently [116]. The scale-up of such systems is hindered by the inefficient use of light by the microalgae. Recent studies have overcome this issue by designing special diodes and optical fibers to efficiently provide internal illumination to the PBRs [117,118]. Despite all these issues with scale-up of PBRs, extraction of high value-added bio-components and nutraceuticals is still feasible with the current PBRs. However, it is too small and unprofitable for biofuel production [67].

Addition of bioactive components extracted from microalgae to commonly consumed food products can ensure nutritional benefits to majority of the population. Recently micron class="Species">algae cells have been used as ingredients in various food products including biscuits, cookies and pasta. Gouveia et al. and Raymundo et al. [119,120]. reported promising changes in the anti-oxidizing activity of food emulsions when certain microalgae species were infused in it. Incorporation of microalgae with dairy products has been successful as well [121]. It is reported that the addition of Arthrospira spp. stimulates probiotic growth in fermented milk and yogurt [122]. The presence of vitamins, minerals and other trace metals in microalgae enhances the growth of probiotic bacteria [121,122]. Cookies and biscuits on the other hand are much simpler products to deliver bio-active components of microalgae. They have higher acceptance in the general population due to their appearance, taste, texture and are easier to store and transport. There have been successful attempts of adding microalgae to pasta. Fradique et al. [123]. reported that microalgae-added pasta presented very appealing colors and had a similar appearance to pasta cooked with vegetables. The use of microalgae enhances the sensory and nutritional quality of the pasta. Microalgae, if utilized to its full potential, can benefit human population immensely in the long run. It is useful in many ways from the production of biofuels, animal feed, human food products, cosmetics, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industry. Although, it is expensive to cultivate if only one product is extracted. Until today, various studies have been conducted to conduct the bio-refinery approach on microalgae. Table 6 summarizes an overview of the studies conducted till date. Although, for sustainability and profitability of microalgae cultivation, further research in an integrated bio-refinery approach is required which will extract multiple products including biofuels, pigments, PUFAs and antioxidants [25].

Table 6.

List of bio-refinery studies conducted on microalgae.

Feedstock	Extracted compounds	Ref
Dunaliella tertiolecta	Lipids such as beta-carotene, fatty acids and phytosterol followed by pyrolysis to obtain char and bio-oil from defatted biomass	[148]
Isochysis galbana	Polar lipids and carotenoids such as fucoxanthin	[149]
Nannochloropsis gaditana	Proteins, carotenoids and biodiesel	[150]
Nannochloropsis sp.	Lipids fraction such as carotenoids and fatty acids followed by bio-hydrogen	[151]
Scenedesmus sp.	Amino acids with biogas	[152]
Defatted algal biomass	Short chain carboxylic acids and biohydrogen production from algal biomass post lipids extraction	[153]

Conclusions

The potential of microalgae biomass to produce high-value bio-active components enables it as a promising raw material for bio-processing. This review focused on obtaining various products from micron class="Species">algae via the bio-refinery approach. The lipids extracted can be utilized as health supplements in the form of PUFA in addition to biodiesel production; while proteins and carbohydrates can be used in diets and in fermentation industry, respectively. Furthermore, the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries rely heavily on the niche items extracted from microalgae such as pigments and vitamins. Various technologies are being investigated for obtaining the components with a high production rate, ease of operation, higher yield and lower cost. However, these processes are still in the infant stage. Life-cycle analysis and economic assessment of current large-scale processes with a single product or two products system from microalgae deem it unfeasible. The possibility of producing multiple bio-active components from a single microalgae strain has attracted the attention of researchers to optimize and streamline the material and energy balances. However, with current downstream processing techniques, multiple product extraction is not economical since the whole bio-refinery creates more emissions. This issue can be tackled by research and development of simple and cost-effective downstream processing technologies. Hence, in-depth investigation and further research in microalgae bio-refinery are still necessary prior to commercialization.