Ethnobotanical survey of plant species for herbal tea in a Yao autonomous county (Jianghua, China): results of a 2-year study of traditional medicinal markets on the Dragon Boat Festival.

BACKGROUND: Herbal tea is widely consumed in Jianghua, a Yao autonomous county in Hunan Province, China, to prevent and treat diseases. The materials in herbal tea at the traditional medicinal markets at the Dragon Boat Festival remain unknown. The aims of the paper were (1) to specifically investigate the materials of herbal tea used by Yao nationalities in Hunan Province, (2) to record the most common and the culturally important medicinal plant species in the markets, and (3) to compare the medical plant tradition both used for herbal tea between the Jianghua and Lingnan regions.
METHODS: During 2016-2017, 215 vendors were interviewed at traditional medicinal markets at the Dragon Boat Festival in Jianghua to record plants used for herbal tea and to document traditional knowledge of their medicinal function, habitat, and conservation status. Bunches of medicinal plants were purchased to identify the species and to prepare voucher specimens. Cognitive salience (CS) based on free-lists and use value (UV) were calculated to analyze the cultural importance of medical plants; other quantitative methods (coefficient of similarity and chi-square analysis) were applied for comparison of herbal tea tradition between the Jianghua and Lingnan regions.
RESULTS: A total of 169 species belonging to 66 families and 142 genera were recorded in herbal tea to treat health conditions in the study area. There were 30 health conditions that were recorded, with heat-clearing and detoxifying being the most common medicinal function, followed by treating rheumatism and promoting blood circulation. Of the 169 species, 97 were herbs. The whole plant was the most commonly used plant part in the preparation of herbal tea. According to the national evaluation criteria, three of these species are listed on "China's red list" and registered as vulnerable (VU). By comparing the coefficient of similarity of herbal tea plants and the number of mentions for part(s) used in Jianghua and Lingnan, the medicinal plant tradition is different in two areas.
CONCLUSIONS: Herbal tea in Jianghua reflects the cultural diversity of the Yao people and the plant diversity of the region. Future research on the safety, efficacy, and the adulterants of herbal tea are needed for sustainable utilization.

Background

The practice of drinking herbal tea is an ancient custom for Yao people. Herbal tea is produced from water infusions of a range of plant species other than Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Ktze. [1]. Plant material may consist of fresh or dried parts from a single species or from multiple species. For millennia, the Yao people have been famous for being good at identifying herbs [2]. However, no documentary records have survived from when Yao medicine originated.

The Yao nationality of China is mainly distributed in Guangxi, Hunan, Guangdong, Yunnan, Guizhou, and Jiangxi Provinces. The Yao people from Hunan Province are the birthplace of the Yao nationality; Jianghua Yao Autonomous County has the largest Yao population in Hunan Province, accounting for 53% of the population there [2]. Thus, Jianghua Yao Autonomous County plays an important part in the medicine and culture of the Yao people. For historical reasons, the Yao people live long in adverse circumstances, and in the long struggle against disease, the local people had to collect herbs from surrounding mountains and valleys, and they made herbal tea to treat associated health conditions. This tradition formed different, plentiful, and special medical customs, especially herbal tea and medicated baths.

The traditional medical market is a unique custom to celebrate the Dragon Boat Festival (May 5 in the Chinese lunar calendar) by Yao, Zhuang, and Han people in Jianghua (mostly Yao people). At every Dragon Boat Festival, people collect herbs from surrounding mountains and valleys and sell them at the medical market, which is a large-scale market, with more variety and larger trades. The traditional medical market has become a unique spectacle of Yao medicinal culture customs. In addition to buying and selling various herbs, people take this opportunity to exchange their experiences in the recognition and usage of herbs. Since the Dragon Boat Festival is at the end of spring and the beginning of summer, weather conditions are volatile and moist, which probably contribute to the disease rate. During this time, many Chinese herbal medicines are in the periods of harvesting or barking, so the timing forms the unique medicinal market of Yao nationality in Jianghua.

The traditional knowledge of herbs is the result of the accumulated experience by the Yao people’s long-term struggle against disease; thus, many aspects of these treatments are probably scientific. However, like the loss of biodiversity, due to the influence of foreign culture, and not having their own written languages, with descendants inheriting their knowledge just by dictation, the traditional knowledge and culture of Yao medicine is also in danger of being lost. In fact, the vanishing of traditional knowledge has been a common phenomenon in the undeveloped country [3].

In order to protect the traditional knowledge of Yao medicine, guarantee food safety, and meet the increasingly globalized health supplement market, we started to document, explore, and research the herb materials for the preparation of herbal tea in Jianghua in 2016.

The study aims to not only document plant species used and commercialized as herbal tea in Jianghua but also make a comparison of herbal tea tradition between the Jianghua and Lingnan regions. This is the first study to document the plant species used as herbal tea in Jianghua; the medicinal plant tradition was recorded for future investigations and policy-making. As well as, if these plant materials are classified and used correctly, the opportunity to develop Yao medicine and expand the herbal tea culture will emerge.

Methods

Study area

The study was conducted in Jianghua, where herbal tea has a significant cultural value and it is traditionally consumed. This region is located in Yongzhou City, which borders Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces, between 110° 25′ S–112° 10′ S and 24° 38′ W–25° 15′ W (Fig. 1). It covers an area of 3248 km2. The total population of Jianghua was 510,000 inhabitants in 2013. It is the only Yao autonomous county in Hunan Province, with the largest population of Yao nationality in the 13 Yao autonomous counties throughout the country. This area features a subtropical monsoon climate, and the weather is relatively moderate, with an annual average temperature of 18–18.5 °C, and plenty of rainfall. It owns the biggest and most famous medicinal market in Hunan Province and the surrounding region, that is, the traditional medicinal markets at the Dragon Boat Festival.

Fig. 1

Location of the traditional medicinal market in Jianghua that was selected as a study site

Traditional medicinal markets at the Dragon Boat Festival

The Dragon Boat Festival, or known as the Duanwu Festival, is a traditional Chinese cultural holiday. The festival occurs on the 5th day of May in the traditional Chinese calendar. There are three most well-known and widespread activities conducted to celebrate the Dragon Boat Festival, preparing and eating zongzi, drinking realgar wine, and dragon boat racing. These customs could be dated back to over 2500 years ago [4]. The Dragon Boat Festival was held at the summer solstice which is a period of high incidence of disease. Many Chinese folklorists pointed out that the Dragon Boat Festival originated from the concept of people fighting diseases and exterminating evils [5, 6]. So, during the Dragon Boat Festival, some indigenous persons, country doctors, and herbalists collect various kinds of plant and sell them to customers, retailers, or formal vendors at the traditional medicinal market.

Ethnobotanical methods

Field surveys including informant interview, structured investigation, free-listing tasks, and voucher specimen collection were conducted during the Dragon Boat Festival in 2016 and 2017. A total of 215 vendors between 22 and 83 years of age were interviewed at the traditional medicinal markets at the Dragon Boat Festival in Jianghua, Hunan Province, to record plants used for herbal tea and to document traditional knowledge on their medicinal function, habitat, and conservation status. Of the vendors, 70% were over 50 years of age, and these vendors were almost equally male and female. The study was carried out following the International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics [7], and all of the participants were informed of our intent prior to the start of the interviews. In addition, every vendor signed a benefit-sharing agreement. The majority of the vendors worked independently or in small groups, and when the vendors spoke only the Yao language, translation was required by an individual that we had hired. Vendors were asked to complete structured ethnobotanical questionnaires, which were answered willingly without payment, the questions included (1) Which species are used for herbal tea? (2) Where do you gather this plant? (3) What plant parts can be used for herbal tea? (4) What is the function of this plant in herbal tea? and (5) What plants do Yao people here use for herbal tea? Bunches of medicinal plants were purchased to identify the species and to prepare the voucher specimens followed by the Flora of China (http://frps.eflora.cn/) and the collections in PE (the Herbarium, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences), and KUN (the Herbarium, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences). We then deposited them in the Ethnobotanical Lab, Minzu University of China. Photographs were taken to record all of the plant species.

The conservation status of each plant was revised by the Information System of Chinese Rare and Endangered Plants (http://rep.iplant.cn/protlist/7) (Table 1).

Table 1

Medicinal plants used for herbal tea in the traditional medicinal market of Jianghua County on Dragon Boat Festival

Family name	Scientific name	Chinese name	Yao name	Medicinal use	Part(s) used	Habitat	Originality	Conservation status	Use value	Frequency	Voucher number
Acanthaceae	Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees	穿心莲	Chuan fin lian	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, eliminating inflammation	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) P268	NE	1.10	16	JH-141
Aceraceae	Acer mono Maxim.	色木槭	Se diang qie	Rheumatism	Stem, leaf	Tree	–	NE	0.87	12	JH-021
Acoraceae	Acorus tatarinowii Schott	石菖蒲	Lao bie chang pu	Cold	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) P91	NE	0.87	65	JH-202
Adoxaceae	Viburnum odoratissimum Ker-Gawl.	珊瑚树	Shan hu dang	Rheumatism	Whole plant	Shrub	–	NE	0.85	39	JH-035
Amaranthaceae	Achyranthes aspera L.	土牛膝	Tu ong che bo	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, rheumatism, nourishing, relieve pain	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.51	45	JH-267
Amaranthaceae	Achyranthes bidentata Blume	牛膝	Ong che bo	Nourishing	Root	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p72	NE	0.85	56	JH-050
Angiopteridaceae	Angiopteris fokiensis Hieron.	福建观音座莲	Fu jian guan yin zuo lian	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote blood circulation, relieve pain	Rhizome	Fern	–	NE	1.25	18	JH-222
Annonaceae	Fissistigma polyanthum (Hook. f. et Thoms.) Merr.	黑风藤	Ji jia mei	Rheumatism	Whole plant	Shrub	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (1977) p593	NE	0.84	40	JH-298
Apocynaceae	Cynanchum paniculatum (Bunge) Kitagawa	徐长卿	Xu chang qing	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, eliminating inflammation, relieve cough	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p285	NE	1.25	64	JH-278
Apocynaceae	Dischidia australis Tsiang et P. T. Li	尖叶眼树莲	Lai nong mu jin diang lian	Eliminating inflammation, rheumatism	Whole plant	Vine	–	NE	1.09	33	JH-127
Apocynaceae	Marsdenia sinensis Hemsl.	牛奶菜	Ong you lai	Rheumatism, promote blood circulation, heatstroke	Stem	Vine	–	NE	1.09	35	JH-151
Apocynaceae	Trachelospermum jasminoides (Lindl.) Lem.	络石	Luo lao	Rheumatism	Whole plant	Vine	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p269	NE	0.84	30	JH-045
Aquifoliaceae	Ilex chinensis Sims	冬青	Dong men	Promote blood circulation	Bark, seed	Tree	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (1977) p107	NE	0.84	41	JH-182
Araceae	Pothos chinensis (Raf.) Merr.	石柑子	Lao bie gan zei	Rheumatism	Whole plant	Vine	–	NE	0.84	33	JH-185
Araceae	Typhonium flagelliforme (Lodd.) Blume	鞭檐犁头尖	Bian yan li tou jian	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, relieve cough	Root	Herb	–	NE	1.09	16	JH-017
Araliaceae	Acanthopanax evodiaefolius Franch.	吴茱萸五加	Wu zhu yu heng jia	Rheumatism	Rhizome	Shrub	–	NE	0.84	39	JH-102
Araliaceae	Heteropanax fragrans (Roxb.) Seem.	幌伞枫	Huang fan jia	Rheumatism	Bark, pith	Tree	–	NE	0.83	36	JH-220
Araliaceae	Panax japonicus (T. Nees) C. A. Mey.	竹节参	Lao a shen	Nourishing, eliminating phlegm, stop bleeding, relieve pain	Rhizome	Herb	Japanese Pharmacopoeia 17	NE	1.48	15	JH-244
Araliaceae	Schefflera octophylla (Linn.) Frodin	鹅掌柴	E zhuan zhan	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, rheumatism, relaxing tendons, and activating collaterals	Leaf, bark	Shrub	–	NE	1.47	40	JH-081
Aristolochiaceae	Asarum sagittarioides C. F. Liang	山慈菇	Geng ci jiu	Rheumatism, relieve pain	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p32	NE	1.09	23	JH-277
Basellaceae	Basella alba L.	落葵	Luo kui	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Leaf, whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.08	37	JH-119
Berberidaceae	Dysosma versipellis (Hance) M. Cheng ex Ying	八角莲	Ba guo lian	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote blood circulation	Rhizome	Herb	–	VU	1.08	12	JH-235
Berberidaceae	Mahonia fortunei (Lindl.) Fedde	十大功劳	Jie da gong luo	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Root, stem	Shrub	–	NE	0.83	60	JH-241
Caesalpiniaceae	Bauhinia championii (Benth.) Benth.	龙须藤	Long xu mei	Rheumatism, relaxing tendons, and activating collaterals, relieve pain	Stem	Vine	–	NE	1.45	31	JH-285
Cannabinaceae	Humulus scandens (Lour.) Merr.	葎草	Lv mi	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, induce diuresis	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.08	17	JH-226
Caprifoliaceae	Lonicera confusa (Sweet) DC.	华南忍冬	Hua nan yin dong	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Flower, stem, leaf	Vine	–	NE	0.83	56	JH-149
Caprifoliaceae	Lonicera japonica Thunb.	忍冬	Yin dong	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote blood circulation	Stem	Vine	–	NE	1.08	48	JH-085
Celastraceae	Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb.	南蛇藤	Nan nang mei	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, rheumatism	Fruit	Vine	–	NE	1.07	34	JH-287
Celastraceae	Euonymus fortunei (Turcz.) Hand.-Mazz.	扶芳藤	Fu fang mei	Relaxing tendons and activating collaterals	Stem, leaf	Shrub	–	NE	1.07	53	JH-066
Celastraceae	Tripterygium wilfordii Hook. f.	雷公藤	Bu ong mei	Rheumatism	Whole plant	Shrub	–	NE	0.80	48	JH-118
Chloranthaceae	Chloranthus fortunei (A. Gray) Solms-Laub.	丝穗金粟兰	Si sui jin su lan	Rheumatism, cold, heat-clearing and detoxifying, relieve cough	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.39	73	JH-055
Colchicaceae	Disporum cantoniense (Lour.) Merr.	万寿竹	Wan shou lao	Relieve cough, promote digestion	Rhizome	Herb	–	NE	1.06	40	JH-214
Commelinaceae	Murdannia keisak (Hassk.) Hand.-Mazz.	疣草	You mi	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, induce diuresis	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.05	34	JH-093
Compositae	Achillea millefolium L.	蓍	Shi	Rheumatism, gynaecopathia	Leaf, flower	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p350	NE	1.04	32	JH-016
Compositae	Artemisia argyi Levl. et Van.	艾	Ai	Gynaecopathia	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.80	93	JH-005
Compositae	Artemisia capillaris Thunb.	茵陈蒿	Yin chen hao	Promote digestion, eliminating inflammation	Leaf	Herb	Japanese Pharmacopoeia 17	NE	1.02	35	JH-062
Compositae	Artemisia dubia Wall. ex Bess.	牛尾蒿	Ong dui hao	Rheumatism, heat-clearing and detoxifying, eliminating inflammation	Whole plant	Herb	Tibetan medicineIp16	NE	1.25	34	JH-156
Compositae	Artemisia princeps Pamp	魁蒿	Kui hao	Rheumatism, nourishing, gynaecopathia, eliminating inflammation, stop bleeding	Leaf	Herb	–	NE	1.74	9	JH-245
Compositae	Aster tataricus L. f.	紫菀	Zi wan	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Root	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p342	NE	1.02	35	JH-003
Compositae	Centipeda minima (L.) A. Br. et Aschers.	石胡荽	Lao bie hu sui	Rheumatism, promote blood circulation, eliminating inflammation	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.24	52	JH-162
Compositae	Cirsium japonicum Fisch. ex DC.	蓟	Ji	Nourishing, gynaecopathia, promote blood circulation, stop bleeding, eliminating inflammation	Whole plant, root	Herb	–	NE	1.68	26	JH-215
Compositae	Dendranthema lavandulifolium (Fisch. ex Trautv.) Ling & Shih	甘菊	Gan ju	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.80	39	JH-166
Compositae	Dendranthema morifolium (Ramat.) Tzvel.	菊花	Ju ban	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, rheumatism, improve eyesight	Flower	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p310	NE	1.24	68	JH-047
Compositae	Farfugium japonicum (L. f.) Kitam.	大吴风草	Lu wu jia mi	Gynaecopathia, relieve cough	Root	Herb	–	NE	1.01	34	JH-280
Compositae	Gerbera anandria (L.) Sch.-Bip.	大丁草	Lu ding mi	Hepatitis	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.80	43	JH-255
Compositae	Gerbera piloselloides (Linn.) Cass.	毛大丁草	Bie lu ding mi	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, eliminating inflammation, infantile malnutrition	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.24	43	JH-223
Compositae	Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir.	田基黄	Lin ji yang	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.79	71	JH-201
Compositae	Gynura japonica (Thunb.) Juel.	菊三七	Ju fang qie	Diabetes, infantile malnutrition	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.01	46	JH-137
Compositae	Inula japonica Thunb.	旋覆花	Xuan fu ban	Infantile malnutrition	Root, leaf, flower	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p325	NE	0.79	15	JH-172
Compositae	Kalimeris indica (L.) Sch. -Bip.	马兰	Ma lan	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, relieve cough	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.00	38	JH-188
Compositae	Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don	千里光	Qian lei guang	Skin disease, improve eyesight, heat-clearing and detoxifying	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p33	NE	1.22	63	JH-076
Convolvulaceae	Cuscuta chinensis Lam.	菟丝子	Tu si zei	Nourishing	Seed	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p309	NE	0.78	21	JH-286
Convolvulaceae	Dichondra repens Forst.	马蹄金	Ma dei jin	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.78	51	JH-270
Crassulaceae	Sedum emarginatum Migo	凹叶景天	Ao nong jing lu	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, stop bleeding, hepatitis	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.21	67	JH-123
Crassulaceae	Sedum kamtschaticum Fisch.	堪察加景天	Kan cha jia jing lu	Eliminating inflammation, promote blood circulation, stop bleeding	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.21	2	JH-242
Cruciferae	Rorippa indica (L.) Hiern.	蔊菜	Han cai	Stop bleeding, relieve cough	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (1977) p624	NE	1.00	43	JH-092
Cucurbitaceae	Hemsleya macrosperma C. Y. Wu ex C. Y. Wu et C. L. Chen	罗锅底	Luo ceng di	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, gastrointestinal disease	Tuber	Vine	–	NE	0.99	37	JH-283
Cucurbitaceae	Thladiantha dubia Bunge	赤瓟	Chi bo	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote blood circulation, relieve cough	Fruit, root	Shrub	–	NE	1.21	18	JH-187
Drynaria	Pseudodrynaria coronans (Wall. ex Mett.) Ching	崖姜	Ya su	Rheumatism, nourishing, relaxing tendons and activating collaterals	Rhizome	Fern	–	NE	1.37	63	JH-183
Equisetaceae	Equisetum arvense L.	问荆	Nai jin	Stop bleeding	Whole plant	Fern	–	NE	0.77	25	JH-289
Equisetaceae	Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. subsp. debile (Roxb. ex Vauch.) Hauke	笔管草	Ba gu mi	Improve eyesight, induce diuresis	Whole plant	Fern	–	NE	0.97	42	JH-197
Euphorbiaceae	Glochidion puberum (L.) Hutch.	算盘子	Fu bian zei	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote digestion, promote blood circulation	Root	Shrub	–	NE	1.20	39	JH-091
Fabaceae	Callerya speciosa (Champ. ex Benth.) Schot	美丽鸡血藤	Hao zui jia jiang mei	Nourishing, heat-clearing and detoxifying, relaxing tendons and activating collaterals	Root	Vine	–	NE	1.37	38	JH-269
Fabaceae	Desmodium multiflorum DC.	饿蚂蝗	E ma huang	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, infantile malnutrition	Flower, branch	Shrub	–	NE	0.97	36	JH-144
Fabaceae	Entada phaseoloides (Linn.) Merr.	榼藤	Ke mei	Rheumatism, nourishing, promote blood circulation	Stem	Vine	–	NE	1.20	15	JH-143
Fabaceae	Flemingia philippinensis Merr. et Rolfe	千斤拔	Qin jiang ben	Nourishing	Root	Shrub	–	NE	0.77	51	JH-012
Fabaceae	Gleditsia sinensis Lam.	皂荚	Zao jia	Eliminate phlegm, induce diuresis	Pod, seed, shoot thorn	Tree	–	NE	0.95	42	JH-256
Fabaceae	Indigofera decora Lindl. var. ichangensis (Craib) Y. Y. Fang et C. Z. Zheng	宜昌木蓝	Yi chang mu lan	High fever	Root	Shrub	–	NE	0.77	42	JH-080
Fabaceae	Kummerowia striata (Thunb.) Schindl.	鸡眼草	Jia mu jin mi	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote blood circulation, promote digestion	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.19	67	JH-290
Fabaceae	Lespedeza cuneata G. Don	截叶铁扫帚	Jie nong li bu. gan dao	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, improve eyesight, infantile malnutrition	Whole plant	Shrub	–	NE	1.19	18	JH-292
Gramineae	Lophatherum gracile Brongn.	淡竹叶	Cuan lao nong	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, relieve cough, induce diuresis	Root	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p328	NE	1.19	72	JH-243
Gramineae	Pennisetum alopecuroides (L.) Spreng.	狼尾草	Lang dui mi	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, relieve cough	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.95	28	JH-106
Gramineae	Saccharum spontaneum L.	甜根子草	Gan mi zei mi	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, cold, relieve cough	Rhizome, stem	Herb	–	NE	1.18	57	JH-276
Guttiferae	Hypericum japonicum Thunb. ex Murray	地耳草	Dao mu nong mi	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote blood circulation, promote digestion	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (1977) p198	NE	1.18	42	JH-189
Guttiferae	Hypericum monogynum L.	金丝桃	Jin si tao	Rheumatism, relieve cough, stomachache	Root	Shrub	–	NE	1.18	48	JH-140
Guttiferae	Hypericum sampsonii Hance	元宝草	Yuan bao mi	Gynaecopathia, heat-clearing and detoxifying, relaxing tendons and activating collaterals	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (1977) p79	NE	1.37	52	JH-131
Juncaceae	Juncus effusus L.	灯心草	Dang fin mi	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, induce diuresis, respiratory disease, relieve cough	Spith	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p147	NE	1.36	60	JH-262
Labiatae	Leonurus artemisia (Laur.) S. Y. Hu	益母草	Yi mu cao	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p290	NE	0.77	67	JH-075
Labiatae	Lycopus lucidus Turcz.	地笋	Dao bia	Rheumatism	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.76	38	JH-033
Labiatae	Mosla chinensis Maxim.	石香薷	Shi xiang ru	Heatstroke	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.76	9	JH-019
Labiatae	Pogostemon auricularius (L.) Kassk.	珍珠菜	Zhen zhu lai	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.74	40	JH-239
Labiatae	Prunella vulgaris L.	夏枯草	Xia ku cao	Improve eyesight, promote blood circulation	Fruit cluster, flower	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p280	NE	0.74	67	JH-179
Labiatae	Scutellaria barbata D. Don	半枝莲	Dan zhi lian	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, induce diuresis, cold	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p118	NE	1.18	36	JH-042
Lauraceae	Cinnamomum appelianum Schewe	毛桂	Mao gui	Rheumatism	Bark, root	Tree	–	NE	0.73	42	JH-088
Liliaceae	Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge	知母	Zei ma	Promote digestion, gynaecopathia	Rhizome	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p212	NE	0.94	13	JH-113
Liliaceae	Aspidistra elatior Blume	蜘蛛抱蛋	Geng you luo jiao	Nourishing, promote blood circulation, relieve cough	Rhizome	Herb	–	NE	0.94	62	JH-174
Liliaceae	Aspidistra retusa K. Y. Lang et S. Z. Huang	广西蜘蛛抱蛋	Jiang fai geng you luo jiao	Nourishing, promote blood circulation, relieve cough	Rhizome	Herb	–	NE	0.93	37	JH-130
Liliaceae	Liriope platyphylla Wang et Tang	阔叶山麦冬	Jiag nong geng me dong	Nourishing	Tuber	Herb	–	NE	0.73	59	JH-271
Liliaceae	Ophiopogon bodinieri Levl.	沿阶草	Yan gai mi	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Tuber	Herb	–	NE	0.72	57	JH-069
Liliaceae	Ophiopogon japonicus (L. f.) Ker-Gawl.	麦冬	Me dong	Nourishing	Tuber	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p155	NE	0.72	61	JH-217
Liliaceae	Polygonatum sibiricum Delar. ex Redoute	黄精	Yang jing	Nourishing	Rhizome	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p306	NE	0.71	59	JH-236
Liliaceae	Reineckia carnea (Andr.) Kunth	吉祥草	Ji xiang mi	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, relieve cough	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.93	59	JH-251
Loranthaceae	Viscum articulatum Burm. f.	扁枝槲寄生	Bian zhi hu ji sheng	Rheumatism, respiratory disease, promote blood circulation	Branch, leaf	Shrub	–	NE	1.18	49	JH-211
Loranthaceae	Viscum diospyrosicolum Hayata	棱枝槲寄生	Shi ji sheng	Rheumatism, heat-clearing and detoxifying, eliminating inflammation, relaxing tendons and activating collaterals	Whole plant	Phytoparasite	–	NE	1.60	43	JH-111
Loranthaceae	Viscum liquidambaricolum Hayata	枫香槲寄生	Feng xiang hu ji sheng	Rheumatism, relaxing tendons and activating collaterals, promote blood circulation, resolve phlegm to relieve cough	Branch, leaf	Phytoparasite	–	NE	1.60	37	JH-107
Lycopodoaceae	Diphasiastrum complanatum (L.) Holub	扁枝石松	Bian zhi shi song	Rheumatism	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.68	65	JH-297
Lygodiaceae	Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw.	海金沙	Hai jin sha	Induce diuresis, calculus, rheumatism	Spore, whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p294	NE	1.17	59	JH-216
Lythraceae	Lythrum salicaria L.	千屈菜	Qin qu lai	Infantile malnutrition, stop bleeding	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.93	13	JH-148
Lythraceae	Rotala rotundifolia (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Koehne	圆叶节节菜	Jun nong a a lai	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.67	33	JH-272
Melastomataceae	Melastoma dodecandrum Lour.	地菍	Dao nian	Promote digestion	Whole plant	Shrub	–	NE	0.67	71	JH-263
Melastomataceae	Memecylon scutellatum (Lour.) Hook. et Arn.	细叶谷木	Fai nong cu diang	Heart disease	Flower	Shrub	–	NE	0.67	4	JH-157
Melastomataceae	Osbeckia opipara C. Y. Wu et C. Chen	朝天罐	Chao lu guan	Eliminating inflammation, promote digestion, heat-clearing and detoxifying, stop bleeding	Whole plant, root	Shrub	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (1977) p574	NE	1.34	42	JH-115
Menispermaceae	Stephania cepharantha Hayata	金线吊乌龟	Jin sui di wu gui	Eliminating inflammation	Tuber	Vine	–	NE	0.66	39	JH-168
Menispermaceae	Stephania lincangensis Lo et M. Yang	临沧地不容	Lin cang dao en rong	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote blood circulation, relieve pain	Tuber	Vine	–	NE	1.17	3	JH-053
Menispermaceae	Tinospora sagittata (Oliv.) Gagnep.	青牛胆	Men ong dan	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, eliminating inflammation, relieve pain	Tuber	Vine	–	NE	1.16	46	JH-231
Moraceae	Ficus pumila Linn.	薜荔	Xue li	Nourishing, rheumatism	Fruit	Shrub	–	NE	0.92	40	JH-002
Musaceae	Musa basjoo Sieb. & Zucc.	芭蕉	Ba jiao	Heart disease	Flower	Herb	–	NE	0.65	26	JH-006
Myrsinaceae	Ardisia affinis Hemsl.	细罗伞	Fai luo fan	Promote blood circulation	Root	Shrub	–	NE	0.63	56	JH-095
Myrsinaceae	Ardisia chinensis Benth.	小紫金牛	Fai zi jin ong	Promote blood circulation, heat-clearing and detoxifying, eliminating inflammation, stop bleeding	Whole plant	Shrub	–	NE	1.34	59	JH-001
Myrsinaceae	Ardisia crenata Sims var. bicolor (Walker) C. Y. Wu et C. Chen	朱砂根	Zhu sha jiang	Rheumatism, respiratory disease	Whole plant	Shrub	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p138	NE	0.92	53	JH-254
Myrsinaceae	Ardisia japonica (Thunb) Blume	紫金牛	Zi jin ong	Rheumatism, promote blood circulation, cold, relieve cough	Whole plant, root	Shrub	–	NE	1.33	62	JH-121
Myrsinaceae	Embelia rudis Hand.-Mazz.	网脉酸藤子	Wang me sui mei	Rheumatism	Whole plant	Shrub	–	NE	0.62	38	JH-004
Orchidaceae	Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (J. E. Smith) Lindl.	密花石豆兰	Mi ban lao bie de lan	Respiratory disease, infantile malnutrition, relax tendons and activate collaterals, eliminating inflammation	Whole plant	Herb	–	LC	1.57	41	JH-264
Orchidaceae	Bulbophyllum pectinatum Finet	长足石豆兰	Zao da lao bie de lan	Respiratory disease, relieve cough	Whole plant	Herb	–	VU	0.91	41	JH-041
Orchidaceae	Dendrobium nobile Lindl.	石斛	Lao bie hu	Diabetes, improve eyesight, nourishing, promote digestion	Stem	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p92	VU	1.33	66	JH-101
Orchidaceae	Dendrobium officinale Kimura et Migo	铁皮石斛	Li lao bie hu	Stomachache	Stem	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p282		0.61	41	JH-265
Orchidaceae	Galeola lindleyana (Hook. f. et Thoms.) Rchb. f.	毛萼山珊瑚	Mao e shan shan hu	Rheumatism, headache	Whole plant	Shrub	–	LC	0.91	52	JH-058
Orchidaceae	Luisia morsei Rolfe	钗子股	Chai zi gu	Rheumatism, respiratory disease, cold, cancer	Whole plant	Herb	–	LC	1.33	13	JH-133
Orchidaceae	Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames	绶草	Shou mi	Nourishing, heat-clearing and detoxifying	Whole plant	Herb	–	LC	1.16	11	JH-122
Papaveraceae	Eomecon chionantha Hance	血水草	Jiang wen mi	Promote blood circulation	Root, rhizome	Herb	–	NE	0.59	14	JH-219
Phyllanthaceae	Phyllanthus urinaria L.	叶下珠	Nong di zhu	Improve eyesight, heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote digestion	Whole plant, root	Herb	–	NE	1.15	69	JH-083
Pipperaceae	Piper betle L.	蒌叶	Lou nong	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, eliminating inflammation, cold	Stem, leaf	Vine	–	NE	1.15	40	JH-029
Pittosporaceae	Pittosporum glabratum Lindl.	光叶海桐	Jiang nong hai tong	Tuberculosis	Seed, bark	Shrub	–	NE	0.58	40	JH-173
Polygalaceae	Polygala japonica Houtt.	瓜子金	Jin gua zei	Eliminating phlegm, heat-clearing and detoxifying	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p112	NE	0.91	38	JH-037
Polygalaceae	Polygala tenuifolia Willd.	远志	Gu zei	Nourishing, eliminating phlegm, strengthen muscles and bones	Bark	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p156	NE	1.14	39	JH-191
Polygonaceae	Fagopyrum dibotrys (D. Don) Hara	金荞麦	Jin qiao me	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote blood circulation, calculus	Root, rhizome	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p218	LC	1.14	52	JH-230
Polygonaceae	Fallopia multiflora (Thunb.) Harald.	何首乌	Huo shou wu	Nourishing	Tuber	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p175	NE	0.52	55	JH-192
Polypodiaceae	Lepidogrammitis drymoglossoides (Baker) Ching	抱石莲	Luo lao bie lian	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, induce diuresis, stop bleeding	Whole plant	Fern	–	NE	1.13	54	JH-057
Polypodiaceae	Lepisorus thunbergianus (Kaulf.) Ching	瓦韦	Wa wei	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, induce diuresis, relieve cough	Whole plant	Fern	–	NE	1.13	52	JH-116
Polypodiaceae	Microsorum fortunei (T. Moore) Ching	江南星蕨	Jiang nan xing jue	Rheumatism	Whole plant	Fern	–	NE	0.52	62	JH-059
Portulacaceae	Portulaca oleracea L.	马齿苋	Ma chi xian	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, eliminating phlegm	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p49	NE	0.91	37	JH-007
Primulaceae	Plantago asiatica L.	车前	Qi dan men	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, induce diuresis, eliminating phlegm	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.13	69	JH-018
Ranunculaceae	Clematis henryi Oliv.	单叶铁线莲	Dan nong li sui lian	Eliminating phlegm, relieve pain, relieve cough	Root, leaf	Vine	--, c	NE	1.13	1	JH-026
Ranunculaceae	Clematis uncinata Champ.	柱果铁线莲	Zhu guo li sui lian	Rheumatism, stop bleeding, toothache, relaxing tendons and activating collaterals	Root, leaf	Vine	–	NE	1.32	1	JH-155
Rhamnaceae	Rhamnus crenata Sieb. et Zucc.	长叶冻绿	Nong da dong lu	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Whole plant	Shrub	–	NE	0.48	2	JH-071
Rhamnaceae	Rhamnus globosa Bunge	圆叶鼠李	Jun nong na jun li	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Fruit	Shrub	–	NE	0.47	9	JH-273
Rhamnaceae	Sageretia thea (Osbeck) Johnst.	雀梅藤	Que mei mei	Eliminating phlegm, rheumatism	Aerial part	Shrub	–	NE	0.47	41	JH-198
Rosaceae	Geum aleppicum Jacq.	路边青	Jiao leng men	Rheumatism, heat-clearing and detoxifying, relieve pain	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.13	60	JH-100
Rosaceae	Potentilla discolor Bge.	翻白草	Bian bei mi	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, stop bleeding, diabetes	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p383	NE	1.12	45	JH-190
Rosaceae	Sanguisorba officinalis L.	地榆	Di yu	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, stop bleeding, relieve pain	Root	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p126	NE	1.11	35	JH-209
Rubiaceae	Damnacanthus indicus Gaertn.	虎刺	Hu ci	Infantile malnutrition, nourishing, relieve pain, cold, hepatitis	Whole plant	Shrub	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (1977) p341	NE	1.29	72	JH-234
Rubiaceae	Hedyotis auricularia L.	耳草	Tu nong mi	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote digestion, relieve cough, cold, promote blood circulation	Leaf	Herb	–	NE	1.54	62	JH-206
Rubiaceae	Paederia scandens (Lour.) Merr.	鸡矢藤	Jia gai mei	Rheumatism, promote digest, heat-clearing and detoxifying	Whole plant	Vine	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (1977) p312	NE	1.11	31	JH-074
Rubiaceae	Serissa serissoides (DC.) Druce	白马骨	Bei ma mei	Rheumatism, heat-clearing and detoxifying, relax tendons and activate collaterals	Whole plant	Shrub	–	NE	1.11	60	JH-051
Saururaceae	Houttuynia cordata Thunb	蕺菜	Ji lai	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, respiratory disease, heatstroke	Root, leaf	Herb	–	NE	1.11	9	JH-089
Saururaceae	Saururus chinensis (Lour.) Baill.	三白草	Bu bei mi	Gynaecopathia	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p12	NE	0.46	65	JH-061
Saxifragaceae	Astilbe rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don	溪畔落新妇	Xi pan luo xin fu	Rheumatism, promote blood circulation, relieve pain, promote digestion	Rhizome	Herb	–	NE	1.29	16	JH-032
Stachyuraceae	Stachyurus chinensis Franch.	中国旌节花	Zhong guo sheng jie hua	Gynaecopathia, heat-clearing and detoxifying, eliminating inflammation, induce diuresis	Pith	Shrub	–	NE	1.29	35	JH-068
Stemonaceae	Stemona tuberosa Lour.	大百部	Dong bei bo	Respiratory disease	Tuber	Vine	–	NE	0.45	78	JH-281
Sterculiaceae	Pterospermum heterophyllum Hance	翻白叶树	Bian bei nong diang	Rheumatism, relax tendons and activate collaterals, relieve pain	Whole plant	Tree	–	NE	1.11	39	JH-109
Taccaceae	Schizocapsa plantaginea Hance	裂果薯	Nong hu duai	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, eliminating inflammation, stop bleeding	Rhizome	Herb	–	NE	1.11	54	JH-011
Trilliaceae	Paris polyphylla Sm.	七叶一枝花	Qi ye yi zhi hua	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, relieve cough	Rhizome	Herb	–		0.91	30	JH-260
Umbelliferae	Bupleurum chinense DC.	北柴胡	Bei chai hu	Eliminating inflammation, heat-clearing and detoxifying, cold, fever	Root	Herb	–	NE	1.28	31	JH-030
Umbelliferae	Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam.	天胡荽	Tian hu sui	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote digest, infantile malnutrition	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.10	69	JH-060
Umbelliferae	Peucedanum guangxiense Shan et Sheh	广西前胡	Jiang fai qian hu	Cold, rheumatism	Root	Herb	–	NE	0.90	36	JH-024
Umbelliferae	Sanicula chinensis Bunge	变豆菜	Ben de lai	Relieve cough, promote digestion, heat-clearing and detoxifying, eliminating inflammation	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	1.28	19	JH-025
Urticaceae	Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich.	苎麻	Zhu ma	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, induce diuresis, stop bleeding, nourishing	Rhizome, leaf	Shrub	–	NE	1.26	33	JH-291
Urticaceae	Parietaria micrantha Ledeb.	墙草	Jiong mi	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote digestion	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.90	9	JH-099
Urticaceae	Pilea cavaleriei Levl.	波缘冷水花	Bo yuan wen nan ban	Relieve cough, heat-clearing and detoxifying	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.90	41	JH-194
Urticaceae	Pilea cavaleriei Levl. subsp. valida C. J. Chen	石油菜	Lao bie you lai	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, relieve pain	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.90	37	JH-063
Usneaceae	Usnea diffracta (Vain.) Articus	松萝	Song luo	Rheumatism	Whole plant	Thallus	Uygur medicine p49	NE	0.33	71	JH-147
Verbenaceae	Clerodendrum philippinum Schauer var. simplex Moldenke	臭茉莉	Zui mo li	Rheumatism, promote blood circulation, relieve pain, heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote digestion	Root, leaf, whole plant	Shrub	–	NE	1.52	46	JH-164
Verbenaceae	Clerodendrum cyrtophyllum Turcz.	大青	Dong qin	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, rheumatism	Root, leaf	Shrub	–	NE	0.89	51	JH-142
Verbenaceae	Verbena officinalis L.	马鞭草	Ma bian mi	Rheumatism, heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote blood circulation, eliminating inflammation	Whole plant	Herb	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015) p52	NE	1.25	45	JH-135
Violaceae	Viola inconspicua Blume	长萼堇菜	Da e jin lai	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote blood circulation	Whole plant	Herb	–	NE	0.89	10	JH-252
Vitaceae	Ampelopsis grossedentata (Hand.-Mazz.) W. T. Wang	显齿蛇葡萄	Xian chi nan pu tao	Respiratory disease, heat-clearing and detoxifying, hypertension	Stem, leaf	Vine	–	NE	1.10	46	JH-120
Vitaceae	Cayratia japonica (Thunb.) Gagnep.	乌蔹莓	Wu lian mei	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, induce diuresis	Whole plant	Vine	–	NE	0.88	39	JH-108
Vitaceae	Euphorbia humifusa Willd. ex Schlecht.	地锦	Dao jin	Rheumatism, promote blood circulation	Root, stem, fruit	Vine	–	NE	0.88	9	JH-266
Xanthorrhoeaceae	Hemerocallis citrina Baroni	黄花菜	Yang ban lai	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, nourishing	Root, flower	Herb	–	NE	0.87	19	JH-090

VU vulnerable, LC least concern, NE not evaluated

Statistical analysis

Cognitive salience (CS) [8] and use value (UV) [9] were applied to determine the greatest cognitive and cultural importance of these medical plants in Jianghua.

Free-listing is a method to obtain cognitive salience from relatively large samples [10, 11]. Interviewers collected traditional knowledge from large samples of free-lists which reveal cognitive salience from individuals’ local knowledge. The measure of cognitive salience includes both list position and list frequency irrespective of list length or number of respondents [8, 12]. We interviewed 215 informants and recorded 215 free-lists; here, we calculated the mean cognitive salience (CS) for each listed species,

F is the number of lists where the particular species is mentioned in all lists while Z is the number of informants. B determines how one plant precedes other plants mentioned in a respondent’s list. K is the number of listed species in one informant, and r (i) is the ith order of each plant’s list position.

The closer to the first position (or rank) the item(s) are, the greater the cognitive salience of item(s) is deemed to be.

The use value (UV) is to quantitatively evaluate the relative importance of species [13-15] used by Yao people,

where Ui refers to the number of medical use cited by an informant for per species and N is the total number of all informants. When there are many use reports mentioned for one plant, it indicates the use value of this plant is high.

The coefficient of similarity (S) of herbal tea plants between Jianghua and Lingnan regions was calculated by the following formula: S = 2c/(a + b) (a and b are species used by Jianghua and Lingnan regions, respectively; c are species in common use) [16].

Chi-square analysis was applied to find whether the traditional knowledge of herbal tea such as plant life form and plant part(s) used varied considerably between Jianghua and Lingnan.

Results

Medicinal plant species sold for herbal tea at the traditional medicinal markets

Plant species and life form

According to the results of the taxonomical identification, the medicinal plants used for herbal tea belong to 169 species, grouped into 142 genera and 66 families. In alphabetical order of the family, they are presented in Table 1. Further analyses on the plant families show that Compositae has 18 species, making it the dominant family. Liliaceae, Leguminosae, Orchidaceae, Labiatae, and Myrsinaceae are represented by 11, 9, 7, 6, and 5 species, followed by Urticaceae, Umbelliferae, Rubiaceae, and Araliaceae, with 4 species each, and 13 families containing 3 species, 14 families containing 2 species, and 29 families containing 1 species (Fig. 2). Of the 169 species, the most frequent habits of medicinal plants were herbs (97 spp.), followed by shrubs (35 spp.), vines (22 spp.), ferns (7 spp.), trees (6 spp.), phytoparasites (2 spp.), and thalli (1 sp.) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2

Dominant medicinal plant families used for herbal tea in the Jianghua traditional medicinal market, China, where f > 3, and f is the number of species in a family; for families where f < 3, these were summarized as “others”

Fig. 3

Habitat of herbs used for herbal tea in Jianghua

Part(s) used

In this study, the analysis revealed that there were 16 kinds of plant parts that were used for herbal tea as medicinal materials. The whole plant was the most commonly used plant part (38.4%), followed by root (14.2%), leaf (9.13%), stem (7.76%), rhizome (7.76%), and tuber (5.02%) (Fig. 4). The study also found that some other plant parts, such as the flower, fruit, bark, pod, seed, pith, branch, shoot thorn, shoot, and fruit cluster, are used less frequently.

Fig. 4

Plant parts used for herbal tea in Jianghua

Conservation status

According to the evaluation criteria established by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (http://rep.iplant.cn/protlist), three of these species are listed on “China’s red list” and registered as vulnerable (VU), which means that they are at the highest risk for endangerment, namely, Dysosma versipellis, Bulbophyllum pectinatum, and Dendrobium nobile. In addition, five species are categorized under least concern (LC), which is a lower category of risk; they are Bulbophyllum odoratissimum, Galeola lindleyana, Luisia morsei, Spiranthes sinensis, and Fagopyrum dibotrys, and 159 species were not evaluated (NE) while Paris polyphylla is listed as second degree national protective plants and Dendrobium officinale is listed as first degree national protective plants. There is a need to investigate and provide proper management to avoid a shortage.

Medicinal uses

In our study, a total of 30 medicinal uses were recorded, and heat-clearing and detoxifying was the most common medicinal function, followed by treating rheumatism and promoting blood circulation (Fig. 5). In Jianghua, 49.11% of the medicinal plant species (83 spp.) are used for heat-clearing and detoxifying, 30.18% for treating rheumatism, 17.75% for promoting blood circulation, and 15.38% for relieving cough.

Fig. 5

Plant species involved in each medical function

Cultural and medical significance of species

The cognitive salience of 169 species ranked from 0.012 to 0.343 (Table 1); 10 species listed as the most salient are Artemisia argyi Levl. et Van., Stemona tuberosa Lour., Chloranthus fortunei (A. Gray) Solms-Laub., Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir., Lophatherum gracile Brongn., Usnea diffracta (Vain.) Articus, Melastoma dodecandrum Lour., Damnacanthus indicus Gaertn., Plantago asiatica L., and Leonurus artemisia (Laur.) S. Y. Hu. The most 20 salient species are listed in Table 2. The greater the value of cognitive salience, the more culturally important the species is. For example, the highest value refers to Artemisia argyi Levl. et Van., which is a fundamental medicinal plant to local people. The least value of cognitive salience is Clematis uncinata Champ.

Table 2

Cognitive salience for 20 most value species

Scientific name	Chinese name	Cognitive salience
Artemisia argyi Levl. et Van.	艾	0.343
Stemona tuberosa Lour.	大百部	0.278
Chloranthus fortunei (A. Gray) Solms-Laub.	丝穗金粟兰	0.264
Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir.	田基黄	0.261
Lophatherum gracile Brongn.	淡竹叶	0.251
Usnea diffracta (Vain.) Articus	松萝	0.251
Melastoma dodecandrum Lour.	地菍	0.249
Damnacanthus indicus Gaertn.	虎刺	0.247
Plantago asiatica L.	车前	0.242
Leonurus artemisia (Laur.) S. Y. Hu	益母草	0.241
Prunella vulgaris L.	夏枯草	0.239
Kummerowia striata (Thunb.) Schindl.	鸡眼草	0.238
Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam.	天胡荽	0.237
Dendranthema morifolium (Ramat.) Tzvel.	菊花	0.237
Sedum emarginatum Migo	凹叶景天	0.236
Phyllanthus urinaria L.	叶下珠	0.233
Dendrobium nobile Lindl.	石斛	0.230
Saururus chinensis (Lour.) Baill.	三白草	0.224
Diphasiastrum complanatum (L.) Holub	扁枝石松	0.224
Acorus tatarinowii Schott	石菖蒲	0.223

The use value of 169 species ranked from 0.33 to 1.74. They are Artemisia princeps (1.74), Viscum liquidambaricola (1.68), Viscum diospyrosicola (1.60), Hedyotis auricularia (1.60), Clerodendrum chinense var. simplex (1.57), Cirsium japonicum (1.54), Achyranthes aspera L. (1.52), Schefflera octophylla (Linn.) Frodin (1.51), Panax japonicus (T. Nees) C. A. Mey. (1.48), and Pseudodrynaria coronans (1.47), which are widely and frequently used by local people.

Comparison of medicinal plant tradition in Jianghua and Lingnan

A comparison of plant materials commonly used for herbal tea in Jianghua and Lingnan shows that there are 23 plant species in total used for herbal tea (Table 3), and Compositae is the predominant family in two regions. For part(s) used for herbal tea, no matter whether they are from Lingnan or Jianghua, the vendors like to use whole plants and roots to prepare herbal tea. By comparing, we found that the common functions of the herbal tea produced by the people both in Jianghua and Lingnan are heat-clearing, detoxifying, and treating rheumatism.

Table 3

A comparison of plant materials commonly used for herbal tea in Jianghua and Lingnan

	Plant species	Jianghua		Lingnan
Consistency in efficacy	Achyranthes aspera	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, rheumatism, nourishing, relieve pain	Whole plant	Clear heat and purge fire	Root
	Achyranthes bidentata	Nourishing	Root	Activate blood and remove blood stasis, nourish the liver and the kidney, strengthen bones and muscles, alleviate edema and relieve stranguria, conduct blood-fire to go downward	Root
	Mahonia fortunei	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Root, stem	Nourish yin and clear heat, warm lung and stop cough	Leaf
	Lonicera confusa	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Flower, stem, leaf	Clear heat and relieve toxicity, disperse wind	Flower, stem
	Lonicera japonica	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote blood circulation	Stem	Clear heat and relieve toxicity, disperse wind	Flower, stem
	Cirsium japonicum	Nourishing, gynaecopathia, promote blood circulation, stop bleeding, eliminating inflammation	Whole plant, root	Cool the blood and stop bleeding, eliminate toxic materials to treat carbuncle	Aerial part, root
	Dendranthema morifolium	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, rheumatism, improve eyesight	Flower	Clear heat and relieve toxicity	Flower
	Lophatherum gracile	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, relieve cough, induce diuresis	Root	Clear heat, sedative	Leaf, root
	Juncus effusus	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, induce diuresis, respiratory disease, relieve cough	Spith	Clear away liver-heat and lower the fire	Pith
	Prunella vulgaris	Improve eyesight, promote blood circulation	Fruit cluster, flower	Clear liver, purge fire, resolve knots, dissolve swelling, pacify liver and improve eyesight.	Whole plant
	Gleditsia sinensis	Eliminate phlegm, induce diuresis	Pod, seed, shoot thorn	Relieve pathological heat and remove dampness through diuresis	Fruit
	Anemarrhena asphodeloides	Promote digestion, gynaecopathia	Rhizome	Strengthen stomach and lung	Bulb
	Ophiopogon japonicus	Nourishing	Tuber	Smooth lung and nourish yin	Root
	Dendrobium nobile	Diabetes, improve eyesight, nourishing, promote digestion	Stem	Strengthen stomach and promote fluid production, nourish yin and clear heat	Stem
	Plantago asiatica	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, induce diuresis, eliminating phlegm	Whole plant	Clear heat and dampness, induce diuresis	Whole plant, seed
	Fagopyrum dibotrys	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote blood circulation, calculus	Root, rhizome	Clear heat and detoxifying	Rhizome
	Artemisia argyi	Gynaecopathia	Whole plant	Stop bleeding, expel cold and alleviate pain by warming meridians	Aerial part
Inconsistency in efficacy	Fallopia multiflora	Nourishing	Tuber	Moisten intestines and relax bowls	Tuber
	Parthenocissus tricuspidata	Rheumatism, promote blood circulation	Root, stem, fruit	Clear away heat and promote dieresis	Root, stem
	Acorus tatarinowii	Cold	Whole plant	Eliminate dampness and stimulate appetite, regain consciousness through dispelling phlegm, induce resuscitation and strengthen intelligence	Rhizome
	Trachelospermum jasminoides	Rheumatism	Whole plant	Clear heat and relieve toxicity	Aerial part
	Hypericum japonicum	Heat-clearing and detoxifying, promote blood circulation, promote digestion	Whole plant	Clear liver, promote diuresis to drain dampness and relieve dyspepsia	Whole plant
	Leonurus artemisia	Heat-clearing and detoxifying	Whole plant	Activate blood and dispel stasis, induce dieresis and alleviate edema	Whole plant

By comparing the herbal tea plants commonly used in Jianghua and Lingnan, there are 23 common plant species among which 6 species have different functions (Table 3). They are Fallopia multiflora, Parthenocissus tricuspidata, Acorus tatarinowii, Trachelospermum jasminoides, Hypericum japonicum, and Leonurus artemisia.

The coefficient of similarity of herbal tea plants commonly used in Jianghua and Lingnan is 11.2%. Using chi-square analysis, the number of mentions for part(s) used varied significantly between the two culturally distinct communities (p value < 0.05).

Discussion

Prospective value of herbal tea plants used by Yao people

Herbal tea in Lingnan region is based on the theory of traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM); many recipes used in herbal tea are evolved from prescriptions of TCM [17]. However, Yao people in Jianghua did not record their traditional knowledge of herbal tea with books or scripts instead of folksongs and teaching generations by experience and dictation. We compared herbal tea plant in Jianghua with Drug Standard Database (http://www.drugfuture.com/standard/), including Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2015 and 1977 versions), Tibetan medicineI, Uygur medicine, and Japanese Pharmacopoeia, and 124 species are not listed in Pharmacopeia (Table 1). Among these 124 species, the medicinal use of not all species can be supported by literatures. For example, Yao people in Jianghua indicated that Achyranthes aspera can relieve pain, which was verified by Barua et al. In 2010, they verified the antinociceptive activity of the methanolic extract of leaves of A. aspera in animal models of nociception [18]. Cirsium japonicum stops bleeding, which was verified by Chen Qi et al. in 2012 [19]. However, most of these 124 species cannot be found in the supporting literatures. Yao people in Jianghua generally believed that Clematis henryi is a good medicine for relieving pain, Heteropanax fragrans can treat rheumatism, and Marsdenia sinensis can treat heatstroke. There is a great need to further study these plant species.

The efficacy and safety of species used in Jianghua

In Jianghua, heat-clearing and detoxifying is the most common medicinal function, followed by treating rheumatism, because the Dragon Boat Festival is at the end of spring and the beginning of summer, weather conditions are hot and humid, so the main plant materials used for herbal tea are focused on heat-clearing and detoxifying and treating rheumatism.

In Jianghua, 22 species were involved in eliminating inflammation; however, of the 83 species used for heat-clearing and detoxifying, 14 species were involved in eliminating inflammation; it shows that 63.6% of the medicinal plant species sold to eliminate inflammation are also used for heat-clearing and detoxifying, so it is important to conduct some studies to understand the dual effect and discover the possible relationship, which is useful for the theoretical construction of the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).

Over the past 20 years, the safety [20] and pharmacological efficacy [21-24] of herbal drinks have drawn attention. Findings have elucidated that some phytochemicals in herbal tea are beneficial to human health [25-28], while some are risky to humans [29-34]. Therefore, further research is needed to analyze the bioactivity and toxicity of herbal tea. Among 169 species, two of them are forbidden as raw materials for food based on an announcement from The National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China (http://www.nhfpc.gov.cn/). They are Dysosma versipellis (Hance) M. Cheng ex Ying and Tripterygium wilfordii Hook. f.

Dysosma versipellis: Podophyllotoxin, a chemical compound isolated from D. versipellis, is recorded to show cytotoxicity resulting emesis, diarrhea, and hepatic and central nerve system lesion [35-38]. However, due to its chemical function similar to colchicine, podophyllotoxin and its derivatives have been synthesized and utilized as anti-tumor drugs [39]. Besides, it was recorded to be used as an antiviral material for treating condyloma acuminatum caused by human papilloma virus (HPV) [40]. D. versipellis is largely be utilized for clearing heat and detoxification, rheumatism, and promoting blood circulation by Yao people in Jianghua. However, due to excessive consumption, the conservation status of D. versipellis on “China’s red list” is registered as vulnerable. At present, D. versipellis is cultivated in Jianghua.

Tripterygium wilfordii: The extract of T. wilfordii, a Chinese herb, has anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive activities and an established history of use in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis [41, 42]. However, the most common side effects of T. wilfordii are gastrointestinal tract disturbances, such as diarrhea, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, rash, skin pigmentation, and malfunction of the male and female reproductive system [43].

Comparison of plant materials used for herbal tea in Jianghua and Lingnan

The resurgence of interest in natural products has fueled the global herbal tea market. In 2013, Yujing Liu recorded 241 species used for herbal tea in Lingnan Region (China) [1]. By comparing the herbal tea plants commonly used by Jianghua and Lingnan, there are 23 common plant species, among which, there were 17 species that had consistent function and 6 species have different functions.

By comparing the 6 species having different functions in Jianghua and Lingnan, we cannot confirm that they have various medical functions. Achyranthes aspera, Fagopyrum dibotrys, Lonicera confuse, Lonicera japonica, Dendranthema morifolium, and Juncus effusus are heat-clearing and detoxifying herbs. In Chinese medicine, the lower the fire is equal to clear heat. We found that there may be a relationship between detoxifying and antibacterial or anti-inflammation properties, because most of the plants with detoxifying properties have antibacterial or anti-inflammation effects (Table 3) [44-52]. For Gleditsia sinensis, Jianghua people pointed that it can induce diuresis, and the Lingnan people indicated that it can relieve pathological heat and remove dampness through diuresis. This may represent a direction for our study of the activity of Chinese herbs. So it will be necessary to verify the pharmacological activity in the future.

By comparing the herbal tea plants commonly used by Jianghua and Lingnan, the coefficient of similarity of herbal tea plants is 11.2%, which is low. We compared all plant parts used in the Jianghua and Lingnan regions. The common used plant parts are whole plant, root, leaf, stem, rhizome, tuber, flower, fruit, bark, seed, pith, branch, and shoot thorn. In Lingnan region, there are several particular used plant parts. They were aerial part, bulb, kernel, bud, peel, stigma, stem node with horns, and pollen. However, in Jianghua region, the particular used parts are pod, shoot, and fruit cluster. We selected all common used parts to do statistical analysis with chi-square analysis; the results (p value < 0.05, χ2 = 61.333) show the used plant parts varied significantly between these two different regions. Hence, the variation of used plant part in two regions accounts not only for the particular mentioned used parts but for varied usage rate of each common used part. For example, in Lingnan region, root (20.78%) is the most frequently mentioned used part, while in Lingnan region, it is whole plant (38.36%). The variation of plant part used suggests that the medical plant tradition is far different between the Lingnan and Jianghua regions. The low coefficient of similarity and the variation of plant part used reflect a relatively great difference of herbal tea plant tradition between Jianghua and Lingnan.

The traditional medicinal market is a bit unstructured

In the ethnobotanical surveys, we found that there are 14 poisonous species, which need to be payed attention. They are Pothos chinensis (Raf.) Merr., Typhonium flagelliforme (Lodd.) Blume, Trachelospermum jasminoides (Lindl.) Lem., Asarum sagittarioides C. F. Liang, Dysosma versipellis (Hance) M. Cheng ex Ying, Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb., Tripterygium wilfordii Hook. f., Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, Hemsleya macrosperma C. Y. Wu ex C. Y. Wu et C. L. Chen, Reineckia carnea (Andr.) Kunth, Eomecon chionantha Hance, Fallopia multiflora (Thunb.) Harald., Stemona tuberosa Lour., and Schizocapsa plantaginea Hance. In addition, we do not know if there is a phenomenon of substitutes or adulterants in Jianghua traditional market. Based on the Drug Standard Database, we listed the originality of all of the species (Table 1). So, the plants that are nonexistent in the Drug Standard Database need to be scientifically investigated for their efficacy and safety in the future.

Conclusions

The traditional medical market in Jianghua Yao Autonomous County reflects the plant species richness and cultural diversity. Traditional knowledge of herbal tea is the result of the accumulated experience by the Yao people’s long-term struggle against disease, so many aspects must be scientific. With the rise of natural product drugs, there is the need to analyze the chemical composition and activity of the materials of herbal tea. Future research is also needed to understand the safety and efficacy of the recorded herbal tea. For sustainable utilization, the production of herbal tea should be monitored.

In addition, uniform standards of practice and licensing of herbal vendors is required to produce a safer herbal tea market. It is very important for them to have the knowledge to select the proper plants since some herbs are hard to identify due to similar morphological characteristics.