Nonmotor Symptoms in Parkinson's Disease: Gender and Ethnic Differences.

Nonmotor symptoms (NMS) are recognized to profoundly affect the quality of life of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and of their caregivers. In order to further understand the underlying pathophysiology, clinical presentation, response to medication, and prognosis, it is important to identify and analyze possible factors, which have an impact on PD. Gender and ethnicity have been reported to possibly influence incidence, prevalence, and motor presentation in PD, as well as other neurological conditions. However, the impact of gender and ethnicity on the presentation of NMS in PD is currently unclear. In this chapter, the currently available knowledge about gender and ethnic differences in NMS in PD will be summarized and possible factors that might contribute to those observed differences will be discussed.