Lachlan Mitchell1, Stuart B Murray2, Stephen Cobley3, Daniel Hackett3, Janelle Gifford3, Louise Capling3, Helen O'Connor3,4. 1. Discipline of Exercise and Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, 75 East St, Lidcombe, NSW, 2141, Australia. lachlan.mitchell@sydney.edu.au. 2. Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA. 3. Discipline of Exercise and Sport Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, 75 East St, Lidcombe, NSW, 2141, Australia. 4. Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Muscle dysmorphia (MD) is associated with a self-perceived lack of size and muscularity, and is characterized by a preoccupation with and pursuit of a hyper-mesomorphic body. MD symptoms may hypothetically be more prevalent in bodybuilders (BBs) than in non-bodybuilder resistance trainers (NBBRTs). OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to compare MD symptomatology in BBs versus NBBRTs and identify psychological and other characteristics associated with MD in these groups. METHODS: We searched relevant databases from earliest record to February 2015 for studies examining MD symptoms in BBs and/or NBBRTs. Included studies needed to assess MD using a psychometrically validated assessment tool. Study quality was evaluated using an adapted version of the validated Downs and Black tool. We calculated between-group standardized mean difference (effect sizes [ESs]) and 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) for each MD subscale, and performed meta-analysis when five or more studies used the same MD tool. We also extracted data describing psychological or other characteristics associated with MD. RESULTS: Of the 2135 studies initially identified, 31 analyzing data on 5880 participants (BBs: n = 1895, NBBRTs: n = 3523, controls: n = 462) were eligible for inclusion, though study quality was generally poor-moderate (range 7-19/22). Most participants were male (90 %). Eight different MD assessment tools were used. Meta-analysis for five studies all using the Muscle Dysmorphia Inventory (MDI) revealed there was a medium to large pooled ES for greater MD symptomatology in BBs than in NBBRTs on all MDI subscales (ES 0.53-1.12; p ≤ 0.01). Competitive BBs scored higher than non-competitive BBs (ES 1.21, 95 % CI 0.82-1.60; p < 0.001). MD symptoms were associated with anxiety (r 0.32-0.42; p ≤ 0.01), social physique anxiety (r 0.26-0.75; p < 0.01), depression (r 0.23-0.53; p ≤ 0.01), neuroticism (r 0.38; p < 0.001), and perfectionism (r 0.35; p < 0.05) and were inversely associated with self-concept (r -0.32 to -0.36; p < 0.01) and self-esteem (r -0.42 to -0.47; p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: MD symptomatology was greater in BBs than in NBBRTs. Anxiety and social physique anxiety, depression, neuroticism, and perfectionism were positively associated with MD, while self-concept and self-esteem were negatively associated. It remains unclear whether these characteristics are exacerbated by bodybuilding, or whether individuals with these characteristics are attracted to the bodybuilding context.
BACKGROUND:Muscle dysmorphia (MD) is associated with a self-perceived lack of size and muscularity, and is characterized by a preoccupation with and pursuit of a hyper-mesomorphic body. MD symptoms may hypothetically be more prevalent in bodybuilders (BBs) than in non-bodybuilder resistance trainers (NBBRTs). OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to compare MD symptomatology in BBs versus NBBRTs and identify psychological and other characteristics associated with MD in these groups. METHODS: We searched relevant databases from earliest record to February 2015 for studies examining MD symptoms in BBs and/or NBBRTs. Included studies needed to assess MD using a psychometrically validated assessment tool. Study quality was evaluated using an adapted version of the validated Downs and Black tool. We calculated between-group standardized mean difference (effect sizes [ESs]) and 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) for each MD subscale, and performed meta-analysis when five or more studies used the same MD tool. We also extracted data describing psychological or other characteristics associated with MD. RESULTS: Of the 2135 studies initially identified, 31 analyzing data on 5880 participants (BBs: n = 1895, NBBRTs: n = 3523, controls: n = 462) were eligible for inclusion, though study quality was generally poor-moderate (range 7-19/22). Most participants were male (90 %). Eight different MD assessment tools were used. Meta-analysis for five studies all using the Muscle Dysmorphia Inventory (MDI) revealed there was a medium to large pooled ES for greater MD symptomatology in BBs than in NBBRTs on all MDI subscales (ES 0.53-1.12; p ≤ 0.01). Competitive BBs scored higher than non-competitive BBs (ES 1.21, 95 % CI 0.82-1.60; p < 0.001). MD symptoms were associated with anxiety (r 0.32-0.42; p ≤ 0.01), social physique anxiety (r 0.26-0.75; p < 0.01), depression (r 0.23-0.53; p ≤ 0.01), neuroticism (r 0.38; p < 0.001), and perfectionism (r 0.35; p < 0.05) and were inversely associated with self-concept (r -0.32 to -0.36; p < 0.01) and self-esteem (r -0.42 to -0.47; p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: MD symptomatology was greater in BBs than in NBBRTs. Anxiety and social physique anxiety, depression, neuroticism, and perfectionism were positively associated with MD, while self-concept and self-esteem were negatively associated. It remains unclear whether these characteristics are exacerbated by bodybuilding, or whether individuals with these characteristics are attracted to the bodybuilding context.
Authors: Brandon M Kistler; Peter J Fitschen; Sushant M Ranadive; Bo Fernhall; Kenneth R Wilund Journal: Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab Date: 2014-06-05 Impact factor: 4.599
Authors: Stuart B Murray; Elizabeth Rieger; Stephen W Touyz; Yolanda De la Garza García Lic Journal: Int J Eat Disord Date: 2010-09 Impact factor: 4.861
Authors: Anu Raevuori; Anna Keski-Rahkonen; Cynthia M Bulik; Richard J Rose; Aila Rissanen; Jaakko Kaprio Journal: Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health Date: 2006-04-04
Authors: Kaleen M Lavin; Paul M Coen; Liliana C Baptista; Margaret B Bell; Devin Drummer; Sara A Harper; Manoel E Lixandrão; Jeremy S McAdam; Samia M O'Bryan; Sofhia Ramos; Lisa M Roberts; Rick B Vega; Bret H Goodpaster; Marcas M Bamman; Thomas W Buford Journal: Compr Physiol Date: 2022-03-09 Impact factor: 8.915
Authors: Mitchell R Lunn; Jason M Nagata; Emilio J Compte; Chloe J Cattle; Jason M Lavender; Tiffany A Brown; Stuart B Murray; Matthew R Capriotti; Annesa Flentje; Micah E Lubensky; Juno Obedin-Maliver Journal: J Eat Disord Date: 2022-07-06
Authors: Jason M Nagata; Emilio J Compte; Chloe J Cattle; Jason M Lavender; Tiffany A Brown; Stuart B Murray; Annesa Flentje; Matthew R Capriotti; Micah E Lubensky; Juno Obedin-Maliver; Mitchell R Lunn Journal: BMC Psychiatry Date: 2021-06-08 Impact factor: 3.630
Authors: Emilio J Compte; Chloe J Cattle; Jason M Lavender; Stuart B Murray; Tiffany A Brown; Matthew R Capriotti; Annesa Flentje; Micah E Lubensky; Juno Obedin-Maliver; Mitchell R Lunn; Jason M Nagata Journal: Body Image Date: 2021-05-04