Stress effects on the neural substrates of motivated behavior.

Exposure to stress has profound, but complex, actions on motivated behavior and decision-making. These effects are central to core symptoms of a number of psychiatric disorders that are precipitated or augmented by stress, such as depressive disorders and substance use disorders. Studying the neural substrates of stress's effects on motivation has revealed that stress affects multiple targets on circuits throughout the brain using diverse molecular signaling processes. Moreover, stress does not have unitary effects on motivated behavior, but differences in the intensity, duration, intermittency, controllability and nature of the stressor produce qualitatively and quantitatively different behavioral endpoints. Unsurprisingly, the results of neuroscientific investigations into stress and motivation often open more questions than they resolve. Here we discuss contemporary results pertaining to the neural mechanisms by which stress alters motivation, identify points of contention and highlight integrative areas for continuing research into these multifaceted complexities.