Literature DB >> 24068271

Pulmonary tuberculosis and lung cancer: simultaneous and sequential occurrence.

Denise Rossato Silva1, Dirceu Felipe Valentini, Alice Mânica Müller, Carlos Podalirio Borges de Almeida, Paulo de Tarso Roth Dalcin.   

Abstract

OBJECTIVE: Lung cancer (LC) is the leading cause of cancer-related death and represents a major public health problem worldwide. Another major cause of morbidity and mortality, especially in developing countries, is tuberculosis. The simultaneous or sequential occurrence of pulmonary tuberculosis and LC in the same patient has been reported in various case series and case-control studies. The objective of this study was to describe the characteristics of patients developing tuberculosis and LC, either simultaneously or sequentially.
METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study based on the review of medical charts.
RESULTS: The study involved 24 patients diagnosed with tuberculosis and LC between 2009 and 2012. The diagnoses of tuberculosis and LC occurred simultaneously in 10 patients, whereas tuberculosis was diagnosed prior to LC in 14. The median time between the two diagnoses was 5 years (interquartile range: 1-30 years). Fourteen patients (58.3%) were male, 20 (83.3%) were White, and 22 (91.7%) were smokers or former smokers. The most common histological type was adenocarcinoma, identified in 14 cases (58.3%), followed by epidermoid carcinoma, identified in 6 (25.0%). Seven patients (29.2%) presented with distant metastases at diagnosis; of those 7 patients, 5 (71%) were diagnosed with LC and tuberculosis simultaneously.
CONCLUSIONS: In the present study, most of the patients with tuberculosis and LC were smokers or former smokers, and tuberculosis was diagnosed either before or simultaneously with LC. Non-small cell lung cancer, especially adenocarcinoma, was the most common histological type.

Entities:  

Mesh:

Year:  2013        PMID: 24068271      PMCID: PMC4075860          DOI: 10.1590/S1806-37132013000400013

Source DB:  PubMed          Journal:  J Bras Pneumol        ISSN: 1806-3713            Impact factor:   2.624


Introduction

Lung cancer (LC) is the most deadly type of cancer and represents a major public health problem worldwide. It is the leading cause of cancer-related death in Brazil and in the world, with 1.3 million deaths annually.( ) Another major cause of morbidity and mortality, especially in developing countries, is tuberculosis.( ) It has been suggested that inflammation and pulmonary fibrosis caused by tuberculosis can induce genetic damage, which can increase LC risk.( - ) The increased occurrence of LC in patients with tuberculosis can also be related to infection-induced immunosuppression.( ) In contrast, cancer-induced or chemotherapy-induced immunosuppression can also lead to increased rates of tuberculosis reactivation in patients with solid tumors.( ) The simultaneous or sequential occurrence of pulmonary tuberculosis and LC in the same patient has been reported in various case series and case-control studies.( - ) The association between these two diseases is important, since both are quite prevalent and have a major impact on public health. In addition, considering that one study( ) demonstrated that the association between tuberculosis and LC varies in different ethnic groups and also in different regions, it is important to know the characteristics of these cases in Brazil. Therefore, the objective of this study was to describe the clinical characteristics of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis and LC.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional study, involving retrospective data collection, conducted in order to determine the characteristics of patients with tuberculosis and LC who were treated at the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA, Porto Alegre Hospital de Clínicas), located in the city of Porto Alegre, southern Brazil. The HCPA is a general tertiary university hospital with 750 beds and approximately 30,000 hospitalizations annually. The HCPA Research Ethics Committee granted permission for access to patient records. A waiver of informed consent was obtained, and the researchers signed a confidentiality agreement. The study involved patients diagnosed with tuberculosis and LC, either simultaneously or sequentially. We performed a search of the files of the pulmonology outpatient clinics for patients with tuberculosis and LC, and the electronic medical records of these patients were reviewed. A standardized form was completed for each patient included in the study. Demographic data and data relating to the diagnoses of tuberculosis and LC were collected, as were pulmonary function test results. The diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis was based on consensus criteria( ): positive Ziehl-Neelsen staining for AFB (two positive smears); positive Ziehl-Neelsen staining for AFB (a positive smear and a positive culture for Mycobacterium tuberculosis); positive Ziehl-Neelsen staining for AFB and radiological findings consistent with pulmonary tuberculosis; a single positive culture for M. tuberculosis; or epidemiological, clinical, and radiological findings consistent with pulmonary tuberculosis, associated with a favorable response to treatment with antituberculosis drugs. The diagnosis of LC was based on anatomopathological findings. The diagnoses of LC and tuberculosis were classified by timing as follows: simultaneous–when the diagnoses of tuberculosis and LC occurred simultaneously or when the time between the two diagnoses was < 2 months; sequential (LC first)–when tuberculosis was diagnosed ≥ 2 after LC diagnosis and within 12 months of completion of LC treatment; sequential (tuberculosis first)–when LC is diagnosed ≥ 2 months after tuberculosis diagnosis, indefinitely, because of the possibility of scar cancer.( , , ) The data were entered into Microsoft Excel spreadsheets, after which they were processed and analyzed with the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, version 18.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). We carried out a descriptive analysis of the study variables. Quantitative data are presented as mean ± SD. Qualitative data are expressed as n (%).

Results

The study involved 24 patients diagnosed with tuberculosis and LC between 2009 and 2012. The principal characteristics of the patients are shown in Table 1. In 10 of the 24 patients, the diagnoses of tuberculosis and LC occurred simultaneously, whereas, in 14, tuberculosis was diagnosed before LC. The median time between the two diagnoses was 5 years (interquartile range: 1-30 years).
Table 1

Principal characteristics of the patients.a

Three patients (12.5%) reported having had tuberculosis twice. The diagnosis of tuberculosis was established by the following methods: smear microscopy of spontaneous sputum, in 3 patients; culture of spontaneous sputum, in 2; smear microscopy of induced sputum, in 2; bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) culture, in 2; PCR positivity for M. tuberculosis in BAL samples, in 4; and clinical and radiological findings consistent with tuberculosis, in 11. Tuberculosis treatment was as follows: a regimen consisting of rifampin, isoniazid, and pyrazinamide, in 11 patients (45.8%); and a regimen consisting of rifampin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol, in 7 (29.2%). In 6 patients (25.0%), data on treatment regimen were either not provided or unavailable. Only 1 patient (4.2%) reported noncompliance with tuberculosis treatment, 3 (12.5%) died, and 16 (66.7%) were discharged as cured. For 5 (20.8%) of the patients, no treatment outcome data were available. The mean age at LC diagnosis was 62.8 ± 10.6 years. Of the 24 patients, 7 (29.2%) presented with distant metastases at diagnosis; of those 7 patients, 71% were diagnosed with LC and tuberculosis simultaneously. The following LC treatments were performed: radiotherapy alone, in 6 patients (25.0%); chemotherapy and radiotherapy, in 4 (16.7%); surgery alone, in 3 (12.5%); chemotherapy alone, 2 (8.3%); surgery and radiotherapy, in 2 (8.3%); surgery and chemotherapy, in 2 (8.3%); and supportive treatment alone, in 5 (20.8%).

Discussion

In this study, we described the characteristics of 24 patients developing tuberculosis and LC, either simultaneously or sequentially. Tuberculosis was diagnosed before LC in most of the patients, and in none of the cases was LC diagnosed before tuberculosis. Non-small cell lung cancer, especially adenocarcinoma, was the most common histological type. The coexistence of pulmonary tuberculosis and LC was first described in 1810, and it was demonstrated histologically a few years later.( ) Since then, several studies on this association have been published, most of which are case series and case-control studies.( - ) However, it has always been questioned whether this association was casual or whether it could be explained by a plausible biological mechanism. One hypothesis would be that inflammation associated with infections can contribute to carcinogenesis.( ) Reactive oxygen or nitrogen species produced by activated neutrophils can bind to the DNA, inducing genetic damage and neoplastic transformation.( , ) In fact, it has been shown that alterations of the fragile histidine triad gene might be involved in lung carcinogenesis in patients with chronic pulmonary tuberculosis.( - ) In addition, during tissue repair, there is increased cell proliferation and angiogenesis, and the epithelium is more prone to metaplasia. Furthermore, carcinogens concentrate preferentially in hyperactive areas to induce neoplastic changes.( , ) The cases described here are similar to those reported in previous studies.( - ) Adenocarcinoma was the most common histological type in our case series. In a meta-analysis( ) of 37 case-control studies and 4 cohort studies, the association between tuberculosis and LC was significant for adenocarcinoma (relative risk = 1.6), but not for epidermoid carcinoma or small cell carcinoma. In a case series of LC in Japan,( ) adenocarcinoma was also the most common cancer. Another study( ) demonstrated that all scar carcinomas were adenocarcinomas, and that, even in cases in which there was no proximity between the scar and the neoplasm, adenocarcinoma was the most common histological type. The vast majority of the patients described here were smokers or former smokers. Despite the cumulative effects of tobacco as a carcinogen, the relationship between pulmonary tuberculosis and LC persists even after control for smoking, with cancer risk being 2.5-fold higher among patients with tuberculosis.( , , ) A meta-analysis( ) corroborated this evidence, showing that the association between tuberculosis and LC was not due to the effects of smoking, because, when considering only nonsmoking patients, there was a 1.78-fold increase in LC risk among patients with tuberculosis. That same meta-analysis demonstrated that the association between tuberculosis and LC was not due to the time since diagnosis of tuberculosis. Because the initial symptoms of LC can be mistaken for the symptoms of pulmonary tuberculosis, that analysis was restricted to studies in which tuberculosis was diagnosed more than 1 year before cancer, in order to minimize this bias. The studies were grouped by time between the two diagnoses (1-5, 6-10, 11-20, and more than 20 years). The increase in cancer risk was higher in the first 5 years after tuberculosis; diagnosis; however, the risk remained 1.99-fold higher among those for whom the time between the diagnoses was more than 20 years. This was true in our sample as well, given that the median time between the diagnoses of tuberculosis and LC was 5 years (interquartile range: 1-30 years). Another, more recent study( ) showed that LC risk was highest in the 2-year window after tuberculosis diagnosis (OR = 5.01) but remained elevated even 2 years after diagnosis (OR = 1.53). Approximately 30% of the patients presented with distant metastases at LC diagnosis. Of those, 71% were diagnosed with LC and tuberculosis simultaneously. Another case series found that 50% of the patients had stage IV LC.( ) Because the initial symptoms of these two diseases are similar, it should be considered that there can be a delay in the diagnosis of either condition and, consequently, patients can present with either LC or tuberculosis at a more advanced stage.( ) In none of our reported cases was LC diagnosed before pulmonary tuberculosis. In contrast, in a recent, retrospective case-control study( ) involving 36 patients with LC, 10 (27.8%) were diagnosed with tuberculosis and cancer concomitantly, whereas 26 (72.2%) were diagnosed with tuberculosis after being diagnosed with cancer. In a case series conducted in Japan,( ) the diagnoses were concomitant in 6 patients, tuberculosis was diagnosed before LC in 5 cases, and LC was diagnosed before tuberculosis in the remaining 5. It is possible that tuberculosis was diagnosed before LC more frequently because of a reverse causality bias, i.e., an occult cancer can reduce immunity and lead to reactivation of latent tuberculosis. Therefore, tuberculosis can present clinically before LC.( , ) Our study has limitations that need to be considered. The major one is that the cases were identified retrospectively on the basis of a search of the files of the specialized outpatient clinics at our hospital. Retrospective studies are at risk of selection bias (cases lost to follow-up) and measurement bias (data obtained from medical records). We should also consider the Berkson bias, in which patients with an index diagnosis are more likely to be diagnosed with another disease than are those without an index diagnosis. For instance, patients with tuberculosis, at follow-up chest X-ray, are more prone to be diagnosed with cancer than are those not diagnosed with tuberculosis.( ) Nevertheless, because the occurrence of tuberculosis and LC, either simultaneously or not, may have different characteristics according to ethnic group and region,( ) it is relevant that cases identified locally be described. In addition, the importance of these cases lies in the fact that patients diagnosed with tuberculosis should be advised to avoid lung carcinogens, such as tobacco smoking, as much as possible, since these agents contribute to a substantial increase in LC risk. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that most of the patients with tuberculosis and LC were smokers, and that tuberculosis was diagnosed either before or simultaneously with LC. Non-small cell lung cancer, especially adenocarcinoma, was the most common histological type.

Introdução

O câncer de pulmão (CP) é o tipo mais letal de câncer na população mundial e representa um importante problema de saúde pública. É a principal causa de morte por câncer no Brasil e no mundo, com 1,3 milhões de óbitos ao ano atribuídos ao CP mundialmente.( ) A tuberculose é outra causa significativa de morbidade e mortalidade, especialmente em países em desenvolvimento.( ) Tem sido sugerido que a inflamação e a fibrose pulmonar decorrentes da tuberculose podem induzir dano genético, podendo aumentar o risco de CP.( - ) A ocorrência aumentada de CP em pacientes com tuberculose também pode estar ligada à imunodepressão causada pela infecção.( ) Por outro lado, a imunodepressão causada pelo câncer ou pela quimioterapia também pode aumentar a reativação de tuberculose em pacientes com neoplasias sólidas.( ) A ocorrência de tuberculose pulmonar e CP no mesmo paciente, simultaneamente ou não, tem sido descrita em diversas séries de casos e estudos de caso-controle.( - ) A associação entre essas duas doenças é importante, já que ambas são bastante prevalentes e acarretam grande impacto na saúde pública. Além disso, considerando que um estudo( ) demonstrou que a associação entre tuberculose e CP varia em diferentes grupos étnicos e também em diferentes regiões, seria importante conhecer as características desses casos em nosso meio. Portanto, o objetivo do presente estudo foi descrever as características clínicas de pacientes com tuberculose pulmonar e CP.

Métodos

Trata-se de um estudo transversal com coleta de dados de forma retrospectiva, realizado com o objetivo de determinar as características de pacientes com tuberculose e CP atendidos no Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), na cidade de Porto Alegre, sul do Brasil. O HCPA é um hospital geral, terciário e universitário com 750 leitos e aproximadamente 30.000 hospitalizações/ano. O Comitê de Ética do HCPA aprovou o acesso aos registros dos pacientes. Foi aprovada a dispensa do consentimento livre e informado, e os investigadores assinaram um termo de confidencialidade. Foram incluídos no estudo pacientes com diagnóstico de tuberculose e CP, seja concomitante, seja com um dos diagnósticos antecedendo o outro. Foi realizada uma busca nos ambulatórios de pneumologia para localizar os pacientes com tuberculose e CP, e o prontuário eletrônico desses pacientes foi revisado. Um formulário padronizado foi preenchido para cada paciente incluído no estudo. Foram coletados dados demográficos, dados referentes ao diagnóstico de tuberculose e de CP, assim como resultados de provas de função pulmonar. O diagnóstico de tuberculose pulmonar seguiu os critérios estabelecidos em um consenso( ): detecção de BAAR pela coloração de Ziehl-Neelsen (duas amostras positivas); detecção de BAAR pela coloração de Ziehl-Neelsen (uma amostra positiva e uma cultura positiva para Mycobacterium tuberculosis); detecção de BAAR pela coloração de Ziehl-Neelsen e achados radiológicos compatíveis com tuberculose pulmonar; somente uma cultura positiva para M. tuberculosis; ou presença de achados epidemiológicos, clínicos e radiológicos compatíveis com tuberculose pulmonar, associados com uma resposta favorável ao tratamento com tuberculostáticos. O diagnóstico de CP foi baseado em resultados de exames anatomopatológicos. Os diagnósticos de CP e tuberculose foram considerados da seguinte maneira: simultâneos – quando o diagnóstico de tuberculose e CP foi simultâneo ou com uma diferença < 2 meses entre os dois diagnósticos; sequencial (CP primeiro) – quando a tuberculose foi diagnosticada ≥ 2 meses após o diagnóstico de CP e dentro de 12 meses do término do tratamento de CP; e sequencial (tuberculose primeiro): quando o CP foi diagnosticado ≥ 2 meses após o diagnóstico de tuberculose, indefinidamente, pela possibilidade de câncer de cicatriz.( , , ) Os dados foram digitados em planilhas do programa Microsoft Office Excel, sendo processados e analisados com auxílio do programa Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, versão 18.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, EUA). Foi realizada uma análise descritiva das variáveis em estudo. Os dados quantitativos são apresentados como média ± dp. Os dados qualitativos estão expressos em n (%).

Resultados

Foram incluídos no estudo 24 pacientes com diagnósticos de tuberculose e CP no período entre 2009 e 2012. As principais características dos pacientes estão demonstradas na Tabela 1. Dos 24 pacientes, 10 tiveram o diagnóstico simultâneo de tuberculose e CP e 14 foram primeiramente diagnosticados com tuberculose. A mediana do tempo entre os diagnósticos foi de 5 anos (variação interquartil:1-30 anos).
Tabela 1

Principais características dos pacientes.a

Três pacientes (12,5%) referiram história de tuberculose duas vezes. O diagnóstico da tuberculose foi realizado através de baciloscopia de escarro espontâneo, em 3 pacientes; cultura de escarro espontâneo, em 2; baciloscopia de escarro induzido, em 2; cultura de lavado broncoalveolar (LBA), em 2; PCR positiva para M. tuberculosis no LBA, em 4; e achados clínicos e radiológicos compatíveis com tuberculose, em 11. O tratamento da tuberculose foi realizado com o esquema rifampicina, isoniazida e pirazinamida, em 11 pacientes (45,8%); e esquema rifampicina, isoniazida, pirazinamida e etambutol, em 7 (29,2%), enquanto 6 pacientes (25,0%) não souberam informar ou não havia informações no prontuário sobre o esquema de tratamento utilizado. Apenas 1 paciente (4,2%) relatou abandono de tratamento da tuberculose, 3 (12,5%) evoluíram a óbito, e 16 (66,7%) tiveram alta por cura. Em 5 (20,8%) dos pacientes, não se obteve o desfecho do tratamento. A média de idade dos pacientes no momento do diagnóstico de CP foi de 62,8 ± 10,6 anos. Dos 24 pacientes, 7 (29,2%) já apresentavam metástases à distância no momento do diagnóstico; desses, 71% tiveram o diagnóstico de CP e tuberculose simultaneamente. Os tratamentos realizados para CP foram radioterapia exclusiva, em 6 (25,0%); quimioterapia e radioterapia, em 4 (16,7%); cirurgia exclusiva, em 3 (12,5%); quimioterapia exclusiva, em 2 (8,3%); cirurgia e radioterapia, em 2 (8,3%); cirurgia e quimioterapia, em 2 (8,3%); e tratamento de suporte exclusivo, em 5 (20,8%).

Discussão

No presente estudo, relatamos as características de 24 pacientes que apresentaram, simultaneamente ou não, tuberculose pulmonar e CP. O diagnóstico de tuberculose ocorreu antes do de CP na maioria dos pacientes e, em nenhum caso, o diagnóstico de CP ocorreu antes do de tuberculose. O carcinoma brônquico não pequenas células, em especial o adenocarcinoma, foi o tipo histológico mais comum. A coexistência de tuberculose pulmonar e CP foi primeiramente descrita em 1810, sendo demonstrada histologicamente alguns anos mais tarde.( ) Desde então, foram publicados diversos estudos sobre essa associação, em sua maioria séries de casos e estudos de caso-controle.( - ) Entretanto, os autores sempre questionaram se essa associação seria casual ou se poderia ser explicada por algum mecanismo biológico plausível. Uma hipótese seria que a inflamação associada com infecções pode contribuir para a carcinogênese.( ) Espécies reativas de oxigênio ou nitrogênio produzidas por neutrófilos ativados podem se ligar ao DNA, induzindo dano genético e transformação neoplásica.( , ) De fato, já foi evidenciado que alterações no gene fragile histidine triad podem estar envolvidas na carcinogênese pulmonar em pacientes com tuberculose pulmonar crônica.( - ) Além disso, durante o reparo tecidual, há uma maior proliferação celular, angiogênese, e o epitélio é mais propenso a sofrer metaplasia. Ainda, os carcinógenos se concentram preferencialmente em locais de hiperatividade para induzir alterações neoplásicas.( , ) Os casos que descrevemos são semelhantes aos relatados em estudos prévios.( - ) O adenocarcinoma foi o tipo histológico mais frequente em nossa série de casos. Em uma meta-análise( ) de 37 estudos de caso-controle e 4 estudos de coorte, a associação entre tuberculose e CP foi significativa com adenocarcinoma (risco relativo = 1,6), mas não com carcinoma epidermoide ou de pequenas células. Em uma série de casos de CP no Japão,( ) o adenocarcinoma também foi o câncer mais comum. Outro estudo( ) demonstrou que todos os carcinomas de cicatriz eram adenocarcinomas e, mesmo nos casos em que não havia proximidade entre a cicatriz e a neoplasia, esse ainda era o tipo histológico mais comum. A grande maioria dos pacientes que descrevemos tinha história de tabagismo (ativo ou no passado). Apesar dos efeitos aditivos do tabaco como carcinógeno, a relação entre tuberculose pulmonar e CP persiste mesmo após controle para o tabagismo, com um risco até 2,5 vezes maior de câncer entre os pacientes com tuberculose.( , , ) Uma meta-análise( ) corroborou essa evidência, mostrando que a associação entre tuberculose e CP não era devida aos efeitos do tabagismo, pois, analisando apenas os pacientes não tabagistas, houve um aumento de 1,78 vezes no risco de CP entre os pacientes com tuberculose. Naquela mesma meta-análise, foi demonstrado que a associação entre tuberculose e CP não era decorrente do tempo de diagnóstico da tuberculose. Como os sintomas iniciais de CP podem ser confundidos com os sintomas de tuberculose pulmonar, os estudos incluídos na análise foram restritos àqueles em que a tuberculose foi diagnosticada há mais de 1 ano antes do câncer, para minimizar esse viés. Os estudos foram combinados de acordo com o tempo entre os dois diagnósticos (1-5, 6-10, 11-20 e mais de 20 anos). O aumento do risco de câncer foi maior nos primeiros 5 anos após o diagnóstico de tuberculose; entretanto, o risco permaneceu 1,99 vezes maior no tempo entre diagnósticos por mais de 20 anos. Isso foi observado em nossa amostra, visto que a mediana do tempo entre o diagnóstico de tuberculose e o de CP foi de 5 anos, com um intervalo interquartil de 1-30 anos. Outro estudo mais recente( ) mostrou que o maior risco de CP era no período de 2 anos após o diagnóstico de tuberculose (OR = 5,01), mas permanecia elevado mesmo após 2 anos de diagnóstico (OR = 1,53). Aproximadamente 30% dos pacientes apresentavam metástases à distância no momento do diagnóstico de CP. Desses, 71% tiveram o diagnóstico de CP e tuberculose simultaneamente. Outros autores também demonstraram em uma série de casos que 50% dos pacientes apresentaram CP em estádio IV.( ) Como os sintomas iniciais dessas duas patologias se assemelham, deve-se considerar que pode haver atraso no diagnóstico de uma das duas e, consequentemente, com a apresentação de CP ou tuberculose em uma fase mais avançada.( ) Não relatamos nenhum caso de CP diagnosticado antes da tuberculose pulmonar. Contrariamente, em um recente estudo de caso-controle retrospectivo,( ) dos 36 pacientes com CP, 10 (27,8%) tiveram o diagnóstico de tuberculose concomitantemente com o de câncer, enquanto 26 (72,2%) tiveram o diagnóstico de tuberculose após o de câncer. Em uma série de casos japonesa,( ) em 6 pacientes, o diagnóstico foi concomitante; em 5 casos, a tuberculose precedeu o CP; e, nos 5 restantes, o CP antecedeu a tuberculose. É possível que a tuberculose tenha sido mais frequentemente diagnosticada antes do CP devido ao viés de causalidade reversa, ou seja, um CP oculto pode reduzir a imunidade e levar à reativação da tuberculose latente. Sendo assim, a tuberculose pode se apresentar clinicamente antes do CP.( , ) Nosso estudo apresenta limitações que precisam ser consideradas. A principal é que os casos foram identificados retrospectivamente a partir de uma busca ativa no grupo de pacientes atendidos nos ambulatórios especializados em nosso hospital. Estudos retrospectivos correm risco de vieses de seleção (por perda de casos), bem como de aferição (dados obtidos de prontuários médicos). Há ainda que se considerar o viés de Berkson, em que é mais provável que os pacientes com um diagnóstico índice tenham a outra doença diagnosticada do que aqueles pacientes sem o diagnóstico índice. Por exemplo, pacientes com tuberculose, ao fazer radiografias de tórax para acompanhamento, podem ter o diagnóstico de câncer mais facilmente realizado do que pacientes sem o diagnóstico de tuberculose.( ) Apesar disso, como a ocorrência simultânea ou não de tuberculose e CP pode ter características próprias conforme o grupo étnico e a região,( ) torna-se relevante a descrição dos casos identificados localmente. Adicionalmente, a importância desses casos reside no fato de que pacientes com diagnóstico de tuberculose devem ser orientados a evitar ao máximo a exposição a carcinógenos pulmonares, como o tabagismo, que contribuiriam para um aumento substancial no risco de CP. Em conclusão, no presente estudo demonstramos que a maioria dos pacientes com tuberculose e CP são tabagistas e que a tuberculose ocorreu tanto antes quanto simultaneamente ao diagnóstico de CP. O carcinoma brônquico não pequenas células, em especial o adenocarcinoma, foi o tipo histológico mais comum.
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Authors:  Yalin Xie; Ning Su; Wei Zhou; An Lei; Xiang Li; Weiwei Li; Zhan Huang; Wenchang Cen; Jinxing Hu
Journal:  Cancer Manag Res       Date:  2021-10-01       Impact factor: 3.989

Review 6.  The Common miRNAs between Tuberculosis and Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: A Critical Review.

Authors:  Mojgan Sheikhpour; Hanie Abolfathi; Morteza Karimipoor; Abolfazl Movafagh; Mahbubeh Shahsavani
Journal:  Tanaffos       Date:  2021-03

7.  Does Every Necrotizing Granulomatous Inflammation Identified by NSCLC Resection Material Require Treatment?

Authors:  Fatih Yakar; Aysun Yakar; Nur Büyükpınarbaşılı; Mustafa Erelel
Journal:  Med Sci Monit       Date:  2016-04-11

8.  [Clinical aspects of primary lung cancers in the cancer ward of CHUA-HUJRA Antananarivo].

Authors:  Valéry Refeno; Nomeharisoa Rodrigue Emile Hasiniatsy; Ny Ony Tiana Florence Andrianandrasana; Andriatsihoarana Voahary Nasandratriniavo Ramahandrisoa; Jean Marc Rakotonarivo; Joée Larissa Maevazaka; Hanitrala Jean Louis Rakotovao; Florine Rafaramino
Journal:  Pan Afr Med J       Date:  2015-11-20

9.  Squamous Cell Carcinoma in the Post Tuberculosis Lung after 30 Years of Treatment Completion.

Authors:  Arulprashanth Arulanantham; Umesh Jayarajah; Rohitha Dharmasiri; Rasarathinam Jeyanthakumar; Kamila Niroshan Siriwardena; Sujeewa Ilangamge
Journal:  Case Rep Surg       Date:  2020-01-30

10.  The Association Between Lung Carcinoma and Tuberculosis.

Authors:  Vesna Cukic
Journal:  Med Arch       Date:  2017-06
  10 in total

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