Pacing device therapy in infants and children: a review.

The number of pediatric pacemakers implanted is still relatively small. Children requiring pacing therapy have characteristics that are distinct from those of adults, including physical size, somatic growth, and cardiac anomalies. Considering these features, long-term follow-up of pediatric pacemaker implantation is necessary. Selection of appropriate generators, pacing modes, pacing sites, and leads is important. Generally, epicardial leads are commonly used in small infants. On the other hand, the use of endocardial leads in children is increasing worldwide because of their benefits over epicardial leads, such as minimal invasiveness, lower pacing threshold, and longer generator longevity. Endocardial leads are not suitable for patients with intracardiac shunts because of the high risk of systemic thrombosis. Venous occlusion is another significant problem with endocardial leads. With the increase in the number of pacing device implantations, the incidence of infection from such devices is also increasing. Complete device removal is sometimes recommended to treat device infection, but experience in the removal of endocardial leads in children is still scarce. This article gives an overview of pacing therapy in the pediatric population, including discussions on new pacing systems, such as remote monitoring systems, magnetic imaging compliant pacemaker systems, and leadless pacing devices.