Metal oxide nanomaterials in seawater: linking physicochemical characteristics with biological response in sea urchin development.

The fate and behavior of nanomaterials (NMs) in environmental media has important consequences for toxicity. The majority of aquatic research to date has focused on NM behavior in freshwater systems. However, pH and salinity differences of seawater affect dissolution and aggregation of NMs. In this study, physical characteristics of metal oxide NMs in seawater were linked with their toxicity to developing sea urchins. The metal oxide NMs TiO(2) and CeO(2) up to 10mg/L were not toxic to the embryos of the white sea urchin (Lytechinus pictus). In contrast, ZnO NM was highly toxic to these embryos (EC(50) = 99.5 μg/L). The toxicity of ZnO NM was not significantly different from bulk ZnO or soluble Zn(2+) (from ZnSO(4) · 7H(2)O), suggesting that the toxicity of ZnO NM can be attributed to soluble Zn(2+). Furthermore, solubility data indicate that at the concentrations used in our sea urchin embryo experiments, ZnO NM was rapidly and completely solubilized in seawater. The present study also demonstrated that Fe-doped NMs were less soluble in seawater compared to pure ZnO NMs, but there was no concomitant reduction in toxicity.