Policy functions of smoking control in Japan.

Analysis of policy functions, with a focus on their major participants, elicits a clear picture of the decision-making process for smoking control in Japan. Activities of various advocacy groups have affected the functions of policy, including: Intelligence, Promotion, Prescription, Invocation, Application and Appraisal. In fulfilling these functions, they have affected every issue they faced by creating, transforming and propagating information in line with their interests and by influencing government decisions using coalition-building and the lobbying of elected officials. Furthermore, they have determined the development and implementation of various programs, even assuming key roles in substantiating the decisions. On the other hand, political leverage by the tobacco industry, exercised through various policy functions, intimidated the government leadership and eventually controlled its actions. When the nonsmokers' rights groups emerged, they gradually started to take part in policy functions, sometimes in cooperation with the health agency. The initial and final forms of smoking control policies in society have been deeply affected by the involvement of these groups.