Formation, release and control of dioxins in cement kilns.

Co-processing of hazardous wastes in cement kilns have for decades been thought to cause increased emissions of PCDD/PCDFs--a perception that has been evaluated in this study. Hundreds of PCDD/PCDF measurements conducted by the cement industry and others in the last few years, on emissions and solid materials, as well as recent test burns with hazardous wastes in developing countries do not support this perception. Newer data has been compared with older literature data and shows in particular that many emission factors have to be reconsidered. Early emission factors for cement kilns co-processing hazardous waste, which are still used in inventories, are shown to be too high compared with actual measurements. Less than 10 years ago it was believed that the cement industry was the main contributor of PCDD/PCDFs to air; data collected in this study indicates however that the industry contributes with less than 1% of total emissions to air. The Stockholm Convention on POPs presently ratified by 144 parties, classifies cement kilns co-processing hazardous waste as a source category having the potential for comparatively high formation and release of PCDD/PCDFs. This classification is based on early investigations from the 1980s and 1990s where kilns co-processing hazardous waste had higher emissions compared to those that did not burn hazardous waste. However, the testing of these kilns was often done under worst case scenario conditions known to favour PCDD/PCDF formation. More than 2000 PCDD/PCDF cement kiln measurements have been evaluated in this study, representing most production technologies and waste feeding scenarios. They generally indicate that most modern cement kilns co-processing waste today can meet an emission level of 0.1ngI-TEQ/m(3), when well managed and operated. In these cases, proper and responsible use of waste including organic hazardous waste to replace parts of the fossil fuel does not seem to increase formation of PCDD/PCDFs. Modern preheater/precalciner kilns generally seems to have lower emissions than older wet-process cement kilns. It seems that the main factors stimulating formation of PCDD/PCDFs is the availability of organics in the raw material and the temperature of the air pollution control device. Feeding of materials containing elevated concentrations of organics as part of raw-material-mix should therefore be avoided and the exhaust gases should be cooled down quickly in long wet and long dry cement kilns without preheating. PCDD/PCDFs could be detected in all types of solid samples analysed: raw meal, pellets and slurry; alternative raw materials as sand, chalk and different ashes; cement kiln dust, clinker and cement. The concentrations are however generally low, similar to soil and sediment.