Differential effects of reward and punishment on conscious and unconscious eye movements.

Very little is known about how human movements are influenced by abstract rewards and punishments relevant for human behaviour. The purpose of this study was to expand our knowledge of the behavioural effects of monetary reward and punishment. We introduced a high and low reward and punishment scheme into an antisaccade task where trials were either rewarded for a correct response (+1 or +25p) or punished for an incorrect response (-1 or -25p). The monetary value of the trial was indicated by the go signal, so subjects had to both program the location of the movement and determine the valence in the short interval before the eye movement was executed. We analysed both correct antisaccade responses and prosaccade errors. Importantly, the errors in this task can be either conscious (recognised) or unconscious (unrecognised). Saccades in both high-reward and high-punishment trials were slowed compared to saccades in low-reward and low-punishment trials, respectively. Therefore, unlike moderate rewards only (Blaukopf and DiGirolamo in Exp Brain Res 167:654-659, 2005), combining rewards and punishments and increasing motivation levels leads to a delay in movement execution during high valence trials where all actions are slowed, even errors. However, unconscious errors were differentially affected as they were speeded when punishment was high. We conclude that reward and punishment similarly influence the programming of conscious movements, but the strong saliency for punishment affords unconscious errors immunity from this delay.