Prostate cancer in the elderly.

Prostate cancer is the second leading cause of cancer deaths among men. Despite earlier diagnosis due to prostate specific antigen (PSA) screening, it is still a disease of the elderly. Diagnosis is based on digital rectal examination (DRE) and PSA assessment. Refinements in PSA testing (age-specific reference ranges, free PSA, PSA density and velocity) increased specificity and limited unnecessary prostate biopsies. Diagnosis in earlier stages (T1 and T2) commonly leads to cure with current treatment modalities. These include radical prostatectomy, external beam radiotherapy and brachytherapy. Other treatment options under development include cryotherapy and high-intensity focused ultrasound. Metastatic prostate cancer is incurable and treatment is based on hormonal therapy. Cytotoxic chemotherapy has only limited role in hormone-independent prostate cancer. Radioisotopes and biphosphonates may alleviate bone pain and prevent osteoporosis and pathological fractures. Follow-up is based on PSA. Prognostic factors for recurrence include stage, Gleason score, pre- and posttreatment PSA. Quality of life issues play an important role in selecting treatment, especially in the elderly due to comorbidities that may negatively affect the overall quality of life. A holistic approach is recommended addressing all quality of life issues without focus only in cancer control.