Metal-bone interactions.

Recent studies indicate that lead and cadmium may exert both direct and indirect actions on bone turnover, indirectly via kidney dysfunction, and directly on osteoblast and osteoclast function. Increased blood lead concentrations, most likely as a result of an increased bone turnover, have been detected in pregnant, lactating, and menopausal women. Lead exposure has also been negatively associated with children's growth in stature. Both lead and cadmium are nephrotoxic and can disturb vitamin D metabolism. Cadmium has been shown to induce kidney damage and osteoporosis/osteomalacia at long-term high-level exposure. A negative association between cadmium dose and bone mass has recently been detected in both occupationally and environmentally exposed people at relatively low cadmium exposure.