Effects of memory training on the subjective memory functioning and mental health of older adults: a meta-analysis.

The effectiveness of memory training on the subjective memory functioning and mental health of older adults was examined in a meta-analysis. Effect sizes indicated that memory training led to improved subjective memory functioning (d+2 = .19), but the magnitude of the improvement was less than that obtained on objective memory measures (d+2 = .66) in the meta-analysis of P. Verhaeghen, A. Marcoen, and L. Goossens (1992). However, no differences in effectiveness were found among mnemonic training, expectancy modification, or placebo procedures such as unstructured practice. Improvement of subjective memory functioning was enhanced by including pretraining in skills such as the use of imagery and by including interventions to improve participants' attitudes toward the effects of aging on memory functioning.