Insect herbivory within modern forests is greater than fossil localities.

Fossilized leaves provide the longest running record of hyperdiverse plant-insect herbivore associations. Reconstructions of these relationships over deep time indicate strong links between environmental conditions, herbivore diversity, and feeding damage on leaves. However, herbivory has not been compared between the past and the modern era, which is characterized by intense anthropogenic environmental change. Here, we present estimates for damage frequencies and diversities on fossil leaves from the Late Cretaceous (66.8 Ma) through the Pleistocene (2.06 Ma) and compare these estimates with Recent (post-1955) leaves collected via paleobotanical methods from modern ecosystems: Harvard Forest, United States; the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, United States; and La Selva, Costa Rica. Total damage frequency, measured as the percentage of leaves with any herbivore damage, within modern ecosystems is greater than any fossil locality within this record. This pattern is driven by increased frequencies across nearly all functional feeding groups within the Recent. Diversities of total, specialized, and mining damage types are elevated within the Recent compared with fossil floras. Our results demonstrate that plants in the modern era are experiencing unprecedented levels of insect damage, despite widespread insect declines. Human influence, such as the rate of global climate warming, influencing insect feeding and timing of life cycle processes along with urbanization and the introduction of invasive plant and insect species may drive elevated herbivory. This research suggests that the strength of human influence on plant-insect interactions is not controlled by climate change alone but rather, the way in which humans interact with terrestrial landscape.