Magnetic and electrical transcranial brain stimulation: physiological mechanisms and clinical applications.

The human brain can be stimulated by electric shocks or by brief intense magnetic fields. The latter cause only a trivial scalp sensation. Stimuli exciting the motor cortex cause contralateral muscle responses, but the threshold for excitation is markedly reduced by slight voluntary contraction of the target muscle. For small hand muscles, the overall latency from scalp to muscle is shorter by 1.8 ms when electrical stimuli are used than when stimuli are magnetic. Central motor conduction time (CMCT) can be estimated by stimulating over the scalp and then over the cervical area. In healthy subjects, the CMCT is 6.1 +/- 0.8 (SD) (n = 29). Physiological studies have shown that the facilitation of responses in hand muscles produced by voluntary contraction is also present when contralateral muscles are used, but not when a leg muscle is contracted. The mechanism of facilitation may involve neural activity at both spinal and cortical levels. Single motor units can be caused to discharge by threshold brain stimuli. These motor units are the same ones activated first during weak voluntary contractions. Clinical studies have shown that the CMCT may be greatly prolonged in patients with multiple sclerosis and that subclinical motor pathway lesions can be detected. Central conduction may also be abnormal in patients with motor neuron disease and cervical myelopathy. Side effects have not been encountered with either type of stimulator.