Ramelteon protects against human pulmonary microvascular endothelial cell injury induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) via activating nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) pathway.

Acute lung injury (ALI) is classified as a moderate or mild acute respiratory distress syndrome and is a prominent cause of morbidity and mortality among the critically ill population. Ramelteon is a melatonin receptor agonist with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. The current study investigated the role of ramelteon in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced human pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (HPMECs) and its potential regulatory mechanisms. A CCK-8 assay was used to examine the effect of ramelteon on the viability of LPS-induced HPMECs, HPMECs treated with ML385 [a Nrf2 inhibitor] and HPMECs treated with SnPP [a HO-1 inhibitor]. The Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway was additionally assessed by performing Western blotting. The levels of oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines in HPMECs were detected using kits and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. Cell apoptosis was evaluated via TUNEL staining. Furthermore, cell permeability was assessed using a FITC-dextran fluorescent probe, ZO-1 and occludin expression was determined via Western blotting. The results demonstrated that ramelteon elevated HPMEC viability after LPS stimulation. Additionally, ramelteon markedly reduced LPS-induced oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis. Moreover, cell permeability was notably decreased in ramelteon-treated groups and was accompanied by upregulated ZO-1 and occludin expression. Ramelteon treatment also activated the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway in LPS-induced HPMECs. Furthermore, the addition of ML385 or SnPP reversed the protective effects of ramelteon on LPS-induced oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis and cell dysfunction in HPMECs. Collectively, the results suggested that ramelteon alleviated LPS-induced HPMEC damage by activating the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway, making it an effective treatment for ALI.

Introduction

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a common lung disease that can impair alveolar epithelial and capillary endothelial cell barrier function, resulting in diffuse interstitial and alveolar edema, leading to acute hypoxic respiratory insufficiency [1]. There are a number of clinical causes of ALI, including sepsis, pneumonia, trauma and pancreatitis [2]. Among these, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced lung injury can cause inflammation, oxidative stress and endothelial cell apoptosis, which in turn leads to increased cell dysfunction and viscosity [3,4]. In addition, ALI may progress to moderate or mild acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) as a result of fibrotic lung repair, manifesting as non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema, respiratory distress and hypoxemia [5,6]. Although morbidity and mortality have decreased in recent years, ALI remains a prominent source of morbidity and mortality among critically ill patients [7]. For this reason, understanding the case physiology of ALI and blocking its progression to ARDS is an attractive and challenging task.

Ramelteon is a synthetic melatonin receptor agonist with an affinity for melatonin type 1 and 2 receptors [8]. These receptors are considered to be involved in the maintenance of circadian rhythms that regulate the normal sleep-wake cycle [9]. For this reason, ramelteon is mostly used clinically in the treatment of chronic insomnia [10]. In addition, as ramelteon does not bind to neurotransmitter receptors, it has been revealed to avoid the distraction associated with neurotransmitter receptor drugs and thus has no potential for drug addiction or dependence [11]. However, ramelteon has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and ameliorates cellular damage [12]. In terms of antioxidant effects, ramelteon has been found to improve liver injury caused by ischemic shock through the inhibition of oxidative stress [13]. Through antioxidant effects, ramelteon improves cardiovascular damage and reduces angiotensin II–induced vascular endothelial cell injury [8,14,15]. With regard to anti-inflammatory effects, ramelteon improves brain microvascular endothelial cell injury by inhibiting inflammation, reducing the LPS-induced increase in endothelial cell dysfunction within the blood-brain barrier [16,17]. In addition, with respect to lung protection, it has been demonstrated that ramelteon exerts an ameliorative effect on ventilator-induced lung injury by activating the anti-inflammatory factor interleukin (IL)-10 in a mouse model [18]. To date, the role of ramelteon in LPS-induced lung microvascular endothelial cell injury has received scant attention in research literature. It has been demonstrated that ramelteon treatment has improved brain endothelial cell dysfunction, oxidative stress and inflammation by activating nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling [12]. This is important, as activation of the Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) signaling pathways have been demonstrated to improve ALI [19].

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether ramelteon can modulate the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways to ameliorate oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis and cell dysfunction to improve LPS-induced human pulmonary microvascular endothelial cell (HPMEC) injury. Our findings may provide a new approach and theoretical basis for the treatment of ALI.

Materials and methods

Cell culture and treatment

HPMECs were obtained from ScienCell Research Laboratories, Inc. and maintained in DMEM (Gibco; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS; Gibco; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.) at 37°C in a 5% CO2 atmosphere. HPMECs were treated with ramelteon at 10, 25, 50 and 100 nM concentrations for 12 h or 24 h [8]. For LPS stimulation, cells were induced with 100 ng/ml LPS (Sigma-Aldrich; Merck KGaA) for 24 h. HPMECs were then treated with ramelteon at 10, 25 and 50 nM concentrations for 24 h to perform the subsequent experiments. The Nrf2 inhibitor, ML385 (5 μM), and the HO-1 inhibitor, SnPP (1 μM), were added respectively into the corresponding groups for 2 h prior to ramelteon treatment [20].

Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay

Cell viability was detected using a CCK-8 assay for 12 and 24 h. HPMEC groups were added to 96-well plates for incubation. Cells were cultured with 10 μl CCK-8 solution (GlpBio Technology), which was added to each well for 2 h at 37°C. The optical density value at 450 nm was then measured using a microplate reader (Reagen Technology Co., Ltd.).

Terminal-deoxynucleoitidyl Transferase Mediated Nick End Labeling (TUNEL) staining

HPMEC apoptosis was assessed using a TUNEL Apoptosis Assay kit (Beyotime Institute of Biotechnology) in accordance with the manufacturer’s protocol. HPMECs were washed with phosphate buffer solution (PBS), fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for 30 min and incubated in an ice bath containing PBS and 0.1% Triton X-100 for 2 min. After washing twice, 50 μl TUNEL was added to samples and incubated at 37°C for 1 h. Cells were then treated with 4ʹ,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) for nuclear staining at 37°C for 2–3 min. Subsequently, following triplicate rinsing and blocking with anti-fluorescence quenching solution, TUNEL-positive cells with green fluorescence were observed under a fluorescence microscope.

Detection of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production

ROS levels were detected by means of 2,7-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA), which is sensitive to ROS. HPMECs were collected, centrifuged and incubated with PBS containing DCFH-DA (MedChemExpress) at a final concentration of 10 μM at 37°C in the dark for 30 min. Cells were subsequently harvested with 0.05% trypsin-Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic Acid (EDTA) solution and suspended in a fresh medium. A confocal laser scanning microscope was used to monitor the formation of the DCFH-DA fluorescent-oxidized derivative (emission wavelength, 525 nm; excitation wavelength, 488 nm).

Measurement of inflammatory factors levels

Levels of inflammatory factors tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IL-1β and IL-6 in culture supernatant of HPMECs were assessed with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits in accordance with the manufacturer’s guidelines provided by Shanghai XiTang Biotechnology (Shanghai, China). The optical density values at 450 nm were read on a plate reader.

Cell permeability detection

FITC-dextran can be used as a fluorescent probe to assess cellular permeability. A mixture of 10 μl 25 mg/ml FITC-dextran (Xinqiaoshengwu, Hangzhou, China) with 990 μl PBS (250 μg/ml) was prepared, after which the FITC-dextran mixture was added to cells and incubated for 2 h at room temperature. A confocal laser scanning microscope (Nikon A1R Si; Nikon Corporation; excitation wavelength, 488 nm; emission wavelength, 520 nm) was adopted to assess FITC-dextran extravasation and fluorescence quantification.

Reverse transcription-quantitative (RT-q) PCR

The TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 mRNA levels were detected by performing RT-qPCR. Total RNA was extracted from HPMECs using a TRIzol® kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.) as per the operating protocol. complementary DNA (cDNA) was synthesized by reverse transcribing 1 µg RNA using the SureScript™ First-Strand cDNA Synthesis kit (Guangzhou iGene Biotechnology Co., Ltd.) in accordance with the manufacturer’s protocol. Amplification of cDNA was performed on a PCR instrument, which was conducted using iTaq™ Universal One-Step iTaq™ Universal SYBR® Green Supermix (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc.) on an ABI 7500 instrument (Applied Biosystems; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.). The processes were as follows: pre-denaturation at 95°C for 5 min, followed by an amplification reaction at 95°C for 10 s, at 60°C for 30 s for a total of 40 cycles. Relative mRNA gene expression was calculated using the 2−∆∆Cq method [21]. Glyceraldehyde-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) was used as an internal reference.

Western blotting

Total protein was extracted from HPMECs using ice-cold radioimmunoprecipitation assay (RIPA) buffer (Elabscience Biotechnology, Inc.). Protein concentrations were then measured using a bicinchoninic acid (BCA) Protein Assay kit (Phygene) in accordance with the manufacturer’s protocol. Protein samples were electrophoresed using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) gels and transferred onto polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membranes, which were blocked for 2 h. Subsequently, membranes were incubated with appropriate primary antibodies (all primary antibodies concentration diluted 1000 times) at 4°C overnight. Horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated secondary antibodies were then added and incubated at room temperature. After washing with PBS, an Ultra High Sensitivity Enhanced Chemiluminescence kit (GlpBio Technology) was prepared and adopted to detect protein bands. Finally, the blotting film was placed in a luminescent imager for photography with ImageJ software (National Institutes of Health).

Statistical analysis

Experiment data were expressed as the mean ± standard deviation (SD) and were analyzed with GraphPad Prism 8.0 (Graph Pad Software). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s post hoc test was applied to determine statistical significance among multiple groups, and Student’s t test was used for two groups. Data was only statistically significant when P value was set less than 0.05. The experiments were conducted more than 3 times.

Results

Ramelteon treatment elevates viability in LPS-induced HPMECs

As a synthetic melatonin receptor agonist with an affinity for melatonin type 1 and 2 receptors, ramelteon has been reported to possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties [8,12]. Additionally, ramelteon exerts an ameliorative effect on ventilator-induced lung injury in a mouse model [18]. The role of ramelteon in LPS-induced lung microvascular endothelial cell injury was the first to be investigated in this study. The chemical structure and formula of ramelteon, which can be searched on Pubchem (https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/208902), is presented in Figure 1a. The cell viability of each ramelteon-treated group was detected using a CCK-8 assay. As presented in Figure 1b, ramelteon treatment applied at 10, 25 and 50 nM concentrations did not significantly affect HPMEC viability when compared with the control group at 12 and 24 h. However, when administered at 100 nM, ramelteon markedly reduced cell viability. Therefore, ramelteon at concentrations of 10, 25 and 50 nM for 24 h were selected for subsequent experimentation. To observe the effect of ramelteon on HPMECs at different concentrations, LPS was applied to induce HPMECs. The results indicated that LPS treatment led to a significant decrease in HPMECs viability (Figure 1c). However, the addition of ramelteon caused a concentration-dependent rise in cell viability when compared with the LPS group. These results suggested that ramelteon elevated cell viability in LPS-induced HPMECs.

Figure 1.

Ramelteon treatment elevates cell viability in LPS-induced HPMECs. (a) Chemical structure and formula of ramelteon. (b) The viability of HPMECs was determined in the control and ramelteon-treated groups (10, 25, 50 and 100 nM) at 12 and 24 h using a CCK-8 assay. (c) HPMEC viability in the control, LPS and ramelteon (10, 25 and 50 nM) groups at 12 and 24 h was detected through a CCK-8 assay. *P < 0.05 and ***P < 0.001 vs. control; #P < 0.05 and ###P < 0.001 vs. LPS.

Ramelteon treatment reduces oxidative stress and inflammation in LPS-induced HPMECs

The effects of inflammation and oxidative stress on pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells are considered to be major components of ALI pathogenesis [22]. To determine whether ramelteon influences oxidative stress and inflammation in LPS-induced HPMECs, oxidative stress was assessed by measuring ROS through DCFH-DA application, and inflammation was assessed by measuring the levels of various inflammatory cytokines through RT-qPCR, including TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6. The results revealed that LPS induced a higher level of ROS than that of the control group, while ramelteon markedly reduced ROS production compared with the LPS group. Moreover, ROS levels decreased with increasing concentrations of ramelteon, reaching a minimum at 50 nM (Figure 2a and b). Additionally, a rapid rise in TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 mRNA expression levels were observed in LPS-induced HPMECs, while a gradual drop in TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 levels were detected after ramelteon treatment at 10, 25 and 50 nM (Figure 2c-e). The results of ELISA presented in figure 2f-h revealed that LPS stimulation led to elevated TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 contents when compared to the untreated group, which were significantly reduced following ramelteon addition. These results demonstrated that ramelteon alleviated oxidative stress and inflammation in LPS-induced HPMECs.

Figure 2.

Ramelteon treatment reduces oxidative stress and inflammation in LPS-induced HPMECs. (a and b) Reactive oxygen species levels were detected in control, LPS and ramelteon (10, 25 and 50 nM) HPMEC groups by performing a 2,7-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate assay. The mRNA expression levels of (c) TNF-α, (d) IL-1β and (e) IL-6 were detected in control, LPS and ramelteon (10, 25 and 50 nM) HPMEC groups via reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. The concentrations of (f) TNF-α, (g) IL-1β and (h) IL-6 in culture supernatant were detected in control, LPS and ramelteon (10, 25 and 50 nM) HPMEC groups via ELISA kits. ***P < 0.001 vs. control; ##P < 0.01 and ###P < 0.001 vs. LPS.

Ramelteon treatment attenuates apoptosis in LPS-induced HPMECs

As a physiological process, cell apoptosis is a critical type of HPMECs death and is believed to play a vital role in the ALI process [23,24]. Apoptosis rate was evaluated in HPMECs by performing TUNEL staining. The results revealed that there were more TUNEL-positive LPS-induced HPMECs compared with the untreated control group (Figure 3a and b). Additionally, the number of apoptotic cells in ramelteon-treated groups decreased as the ramelteon concentration increased. According to Western blotting results, protein levels of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), which inhibits apoptosis, were markedly decreased in LPS-induced HPMECs compared with the control group. However, when compared with the LPS group, a marked increase in Bcl-2 was observed following ramelteon administration at 10, 25 and 50 nM (Figure 3c). By contrast, the levels of pro-apoptotic genes, including Cleaved Caspase-3, Bcl-2-associated X (Bax) and Cleaved poly-ADP-ribose polymerases (PARP), demonstrated the opposite trend to Bcl-2. Taken together, the results demonstrated that different doses of ramelteon decreased apoptosis in LPS-induced HPMECs, and that apoptotic cells were at their lowest when treated with 50 nM ramelteon.

Figure 3.

Ramelteon treatment attenuates apoptosis in LPS-induced HPMECs. (a and b) A TUNEL assay was performed to determine HPMEC apoptosis in control, LPS and ramelteon (10, 25 and 50 nM) groups. (c) Western blotting was performed to determine Bcl-2, Cleaved Caspase-3, Caspase-3, Bax, cleaved PARP and PARP levels in control, LPS and ramelteon-treated (10, 25 and 50 nM) HPMECs. ***P < 0.001 vs. control; #P < 0.05 and ###P < 0.001 vs. LPS.

Ramelteon treatment decreases cell dysfunction in LPS-induced HPMECs

A hallmark of cellular senescence is increased cell permeability [25]. Based on the results of the FITC-dextran assay, cell permeability markedly increased in LPS-induced HPMECs when compared with the control group (Figure 4a). Moreover, LPS and 10, 25 and 50 nM ramelteon treatment gradually reduced cell permeability when compared with the LPS group. Furthermore, the expression of HPMEC tight junction proteins, including zona occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin, notably decreased in the LPS group relative to the control group. However, expression gradually increased after ramelteon treatment (Figure 4b). The expression of ZO-1 and occludin also increased as ramelteon concentrations increased. The results revealed that ramelteon treatment reduces cell dysfunction in LPS-induced HPMECs.

Figure 4.

Ramelteon reduces LPS-induced HPMEC dysfunction. (a) HPMEC permeability was detected by FITC-dextran in control, LPS and ramelteon (10, 25 and 50 nM) groups. (b) Levels of tight junction proteins, ZO-1 and occludin, were measured via Western blotting in control, LPS and ramelteon-treated (10, 25 and 50 nM) HPMECs. ***P < 0.001 vs. control; ##P < 0.01 and ###P < 0.001 vs. LPS.

Ramelteon treatment activates Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways in LPS-induced HPMECs

It has been well reported that Nrf2-induced anti-oxidative stress enzyme scavenges excessive ROS and inhibit inordinate inflammatory responses [26]. Activation of Nrf2-HO-1 signaling pathway can alleviate LPS-induced acute lung injury [27]. The results of Western blotting revealed that the expression of Nrf2 and HO-1 in LPS-induced HPMECs was decreased compared with the control group (Figure 5). Furthermore, Nrf2 and HO-1 protein levels increased as ramelteon concentrations increased, with the highest levels occurring at 50 nM. Different doses of ramelteon could therefore activate the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways in LPS-induced HPMECs.

Figure 5.

Ramelteon activated Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway in LPS-induced HPMECs. Protein levels of Nrf2 and HO-1 of HPMECs were measured by Western blot in the groups of control, LPS and Ramelteon at concentration of 10, 25, 50 nM. ***P < 0.001 vs. control; ##P < 0.01, ###P < 0.001 vs. LPS.

Ramelteon treatment ameliorates oxidative stress and inflammation in LPS-induced HPMECs via Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways.

To determine whether ramelteon affects oxidative stress and inflammation through Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways, a series of experiments were performed on LPS-induced HPMECs that were treated with 50 nM ramelteon and the Nrf2 inhibitor, ML385, or the HO-1 inhibitor, SnPP. When compared with the LPS+50 nM ramelteon group, cell viability was significantly reduced following ML385 and SnPP treatment (Figure 6a). When compared with the LPS+50 nM ramelteon group, ROS levels were also increased following ML385 and SnPP treatment (Figure 6b-c). In addition, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 mRNA expression levels and contents in culture supernatant of HPMECs were increased following ML385 and SnPP application (Figure 6d-i). The results revealed that ramelteon attenuated oxidative stress and inflammation in LPS-induced HPMECs via Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways.

Figure 6.

Ramelteon attenuated oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines LPS-induced in HPMECs via Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways. (a) Cell viability of HPMECs was detected by CCK-8 in the groups of LPS, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+ML385, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+SnPP. (b-c) ROS level of HPMECs was assessed by DCFH-DA in the groups of LPS, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+ML385, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+SnPP. (d-f) The mRNA expression levels of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 of HPMECs were detected by RT-qPCR in the groups of LPS, LPS +50 nM Ramelteon, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+ML385, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+SnPP. The concentrations of (g) TNF-α, (h) IL-1β and (i) IL-6 in culture supernatant were detected in the groups of LPS, LPS +50 nM Ramelteon, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+ML385, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+SnPP via ELISA kits. ***P < 0.001 vs. control; ###P < 0.001 vs. LPS; $P < 0.05, $$P < 0.01, $$$P < 0.001 vs. LPS+50 nM Ramelteon.

Ramelteon treatment inhibits apoptosis and cell dysfunction in LPS-induced HPMECs via Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways.

Subsequently, whether ramelteon affects LPS-induced apoptosis and cell dysfunction in HPMECs through Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways were explored. In contrast to the LPS+50 nM ramelteon group, the number of apoptotic cells was significantly increased in ML385 and SnPP-treated LPS+50 nM ramelteon groups (Figure 7a and b). Additionally, compared with the LPS+50 nM ramelteon group, Bcl-2 protein expression levels were markedly decreased in LPS+50 nM ramelteon groups treated with ML385 and SnPP (Figure 7c). The protein expression levels of Cleaved Caspase-3, Bax and Cleaved PARP were also elevated in the ML385 and SnPP-treated LPS+50 nM ramelteon groups. FITC-dextran detection revealed that cell permeability was increased in ML385 and SnPP-treated groups when compared with the LPS+ramelteon group (Figure 8a). Moreover, the expression of HPMEC tight junction proteins, including ZO-1 and occludin, were markedly decreased in ML385 and SnPP-treated groups when compared with the LPS+ramelteon group (Figure 8b). The results demonstrated that ramelteon attenuated LPS-induced HPMEC apoptosis and cell dysfunction via Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways.

Figure 7.

Ramelteon ameliorated apoptosis in LPS-induced HPMECs via Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways. (a-b) Apoptotic cells of HPMECs were measured by TUNEL in the groups of LPS, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+ML385, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+SnPP. (c) Levels of Bcl-2, Cleaved Caspase-3, Caspase-3, Bax, cleaved PARP and PARP of HPMECs were tested by Western blot in the groups of LPS, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+ML385, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+SnPP. ***P < 0.001 vs. control; ###P < 0.001 vs. LPS; $P < 0.05, $$$P < 0.001 vs. LPS+50 nM Ramelteon.

Figure 8.

Ramelteon attenuated cell dysfunction in LPS-induced HPMECs via Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways. (a) Cell dysfunction of HPMECs was detected by FITC-dextran in the groups of LPS, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+ML385, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+SnPP. (b) Levels of tight junction proteins ZO-1 and occludin of HPMECs were measured by Western blot in the groups of LPS, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+ML385, LPS+50 nM Ramelteon+SnPP. ***P < 0.001 vs. control; ###P < 0.001 vs. LPS; $P < 0.05, $$P < 0.01, $$$P < 0.001 vs. LPS+50 nM Ramelteon.

Discussion

ALI is a serious diffuse lung disease with a high morbidity and mortality rate [28]. The septic microvascular dysfunction of both pulmonary and systemic vascular beds is a cause of the increased mortality observed in ALI [29]. Pulmonary microvascular dysfunction is caused by pulmonary microvascular endothelial cell injury and is characterized by increased pulmonary microvascular polymorphonuclear sequestration/adhesion and the disruption of normal pulmonary microvascular alveolar-capillary dysfunction, resulting in clinically severe hypoxemic respiratory failure [30]. The effects of inflammation and oxidative stress on pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells are considered to be major components of ALI pathogenesis [22]. Therefore, therapies to modulate ALI-related oxidative stress and inflammation are critical.

LPS is the most important inflammatory mediator that induces the secretion of various inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6, in response to bacterial toxins [31]. The pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 are among the most promising biomarkers for the prediction of morbidity and mortality in patients with ALI [32]. Ramelteon is a melatonin receptor agonist [33]. A previous study demonstrated that ramelteon has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects [12]. To explore the role of ramelteon in ALI, HPMECs were induced with LPS to establish an environment of lung cell damage. Based on experimental results, ramelteon promoted LPS-induced HPMEC viability. Furthermore, in the state of LPS-induced lung microvascular endothelial cell injury, ROS was produced in large quantities, leading to an imbalance in the intracellular oxidative system. The release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6, was also increased, which has been reported to increase the dysfunction of the alveolar-capillary membrane, pulmonary infiltration and edema [30,34]. In the current study, decreased levels of ROS, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 suggested that ramelteon improved oxidative stress and reduced the release of inflammatory cytokines in LPS-induced HPMECs.

Previous studies have determined that the activation of certain inflammatory receptors, including the TNF-α receptor, caused the activation of JNK, which resulted in Bcl-2 phosphorylation and the dissociation of the Bcl-2/Beclin1 or Bcl-2/Bax complex, leading to apoptosis and autophagia [35,36]. It has been additionally reported that ramelteon and melatonin activated the melatonin receptor and induced mitochondrial biogenesis, which inhibited the Bcl-2/Bax signaling pathway and further reduced apoptosis, oxidative stress and inflammation induced by cocaine [37]. In the current study, reduced HPMEC apoptosis was decreased, Bcl-2 expression levels were increased and Cleaved Caspase-3/Bax expression levels were increased, implying that ramelteon attenuated LPS-induced HPMEC apoptosis. In addition, according to Liu et al [17], ramelteon significantly reversed the LPS-induced increase of brain dysfunction and downregulation of tight junction protein expression in mouse brain tissue. In the present experiments, both the decrease in cell dysfunction and the increase in tight junction protein expression demonstrated that ramelteon reduced cell dysfunction in LPS-induced HPMECs.

Nrf2 binds to the promoter antioxidant response element and participates in the elimination of ROS to prevent cellular damage caused by oxidative stress [17]. Transferred Nrf2 also upregulates HO-1 expression and promotes the activation of the antioxidant system [38]. This Nrf2-induced anti-oxidative stress enzyme scavenges excessive ROS and inhibit inordinate inflammatory responses [26]. The research results of Lee et al suggested that Botanical formulation, TADIOS, could alleviate LPS-induced acute lung injury in mice via activation of the Nrf2-HO-1 signaling pathway [39]. By modulating Nrf2-mediated HO-1 signaling pathway, Baicalin suppressed oxidative stress and inflammation, thereby relieving LPS-induced acute lung injury in a mice model [40]. It is worthy of note that Lipoxin A4 could ameliorated HPMECs injury by mediating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway [41]. Additionally, it was previously demonstrated that ramelteon relieved oxidative stress by activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway [12]. Ramelteon can also protect against 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced cellular senescence in human SH-SY5Y neuronal cells by activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway [42]. In the present study, ramelteon reversed the LPS-induced decrease in Nrf2/HO-1 expression, suggesting that ramelteon could activate Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways in LPS-induced HPMECs. Moreover, ML385 and SnPP treatment confirmed that ramelteon attenuated LPS-induced apoptosis, oxidative stress, inflammatory cytokine release and cell dysfunction in HPMECs via Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways. However, the lack of animal experiments to prove the protective effect of ramelteon on pulmonary microvascular endothelial cell is a potential limitation of the present study, which is an aim of future studies.

Conclusion

In conclusion, ramelteon reduced oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis and cell dysfunction, thereby ameliorating cell damage in LPS-induced HPMECs by activating Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways. The results suggested that ramelteon may be a potential treatment strategy for patients with ALI. However, our experiment has a limitation. In this study, we only discussed the effects and regulatory mechanism of ramelteon in LPS-induced HPMECs, which is only an in vitro model of ALI. The further in vivo experiments will be performed in the future investigation to support the present conclusions.