Trimethylamine N-oxide promotes atherosclerosis via regulating the enriched abundant transcript 1/miR-370-3p/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3/flavin-containing monooxygenase-3 axis.

Atherosclerosis (AS) is one of the main causes of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) exacerbates the development of AS. This study aimed to investigate the roles of TMAO in AS. In this study, mice were fed with high fat food (HF) and/or injected with TMAO. Oil red O staining was applied for histological analysis. ELISA, qRT-PCR, and Western blot were conducted to determine the TMAO, serum, mRNA, and protein levels. CCK-8, colony formation assay, and flow cytometry assays were performed to detect the functions of human aortic endothelial cells (HUVECs). The results showed that TMAO induced thick internal and external walls and intimal plaques in vivo, and HUVEC dysfunction in vitro. TMAO and lncRNA enriched abundant transcript 1 (NEAT1) were increased in AS clinical samples and TMAO-HUVECs. Downregulated NEAT1 inhibited proliferation and promoted the apoptosis of HUVECs. NEAT1 regulated the expression of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) via sponging miR-370-3p. Overexpression of miR-370-3p facilitated the effects of NEAT1 on the cellular functions of HUVECs, while STAT3 exerted opposing effects. The activation of STAT3 promoted the expression of flavin-containing monooxygenase-3 (FMO3). Taken together, our results show that TMAO-NEAT1/miR-370-3p/STAT3/FMO3 forms a positive feedback loop to exacerbate the development of AS. This novel feedback loop may be a promising therapeutic target for AS.

Introduction

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a key factor of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) [1], such as heart attack and stroke, which are a main cause for human mortality. The initiation and formation of AS is associated with complicated factors, such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, family history, and obesity [2-4]. However, the exact mechanisms regulating AS remain unclear. Previous studies reveal that the progression of AS is associated with the dysfunction of smooth muscle cell and endothelial cells [5,6]. Frequently, endothelial cell dysfunction-induced plaque formation and vascular inflammation are the main causes of AS events [7,8]. Inflammatory response or low shear stress induces excessive endothelial cell proliferation, which further promotes the subsequent formation of atherosclerotic plaques [9-14]. Therefore, efficiently suppressing endothelial hyperproliferation may be a promising therapy for AS.

Trimethylamine N‐oxide (TMAO) is metabolized from Trimethylamine (TMA) via gut microbiota or flavin-containing monooxygenase-3 (FMO3) [13,15]. TMAO upregulates the high-mobility group box protein 1 (HMGB1), and disrupts cell–cell junctions, facilitating vascular endothelial hyperpermeability and endothelial dysfunction [16]. Moreover, TMAO induces an increase in oxidative stress and activation of the p53/p21/Rb pathway, to alleviate endothelial cell senescence and vascular aging [17]. TMAO promotes endothelial angiogenesis and suppresses the pyroptosis, which is associated with the vascular inflammatory response, and arterial plaque formation, which are primary features of AS [18,19]. Thus, decreasing the level of TMAO may be an efficient strategy for suppressing the hyperproliferation of endothelial cells [16]. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms regulating AS have not been elucidated.

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play a crucial role in the progression of AS [20]. Numerous lncRNAs are reported to be diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers for AS [21]. lncRNA enriched abundant transcript 1 (NEAT1) regulates the integrity of the nuclear paraspeckle substructure, which is collectively involved in regulating endothelial cell behavior [22]. For instance, NEAT1 knockdown inhibits the proliferation and promotes the apoptosis of hemangioma endothelial cells [22]. In AS, TMAO-induced upregulation of NEAT1 enhances the proliferation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) [23]. However, the underlying mechanisms by which NEAT1 regulates the progression of AS are still not clear.

This study aimed to investigate the potential roles of TMAO in AS and the underlying molecular mechanisms. ELISA was used to determine the TMAO plasma concentration, while CCK-8, EdU, and flow cytometry were used to determine endothelial cell behavior. We hypothesized that TMAO promoted the development of AS via inducing excessive endothelial cell proliferation. The TMAO/NEAT1/miR-370-3p/STAT3/FMO3 axis forms a positive feedback loop.

Materials and methods

Clinical samples

Clinical samples were collected from Binhai People’s Hospital from September 2017 to December 2019. Blood samples were obtained from patients with AS (n = 30), as well as from healthy individuals without underlying conditions (n = 30). Exclusion criteria were diabetes, cancer, or infection. The blood samples were taken before any medications were given to the patients. Serum was prepared from the blood samples. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Binhai People’s Hospital (2,019,032,003). All patients signed and provided informed consent.

Cell culture

Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC). Cells were cultivated in DMEM containing 10% FBS, 1% streptomycin/penicillin at 37°C in a 5% CO2. Cells at a confluence of 70–80% were exposed to TMAO (UnionBiol, Beijing, China). After 48 h, the cells treated with TMAO (TMAO-HUVECs) were used in subsequent experiments.

Cell transfection

Cells were treated with NC mimics or miR-370-3p mimics, si-NC or si-NEAT1, and pcDNA3.1 or pcDNA3.1-STAT3 (GenePharma, China) using Lipofectamine 2000 for 48 h.

qRT-PCR

qRT-PCR was performed as previously described [24]. Total RNA was isolated from either atherosclerotic plaque cap specimens using TRIzol buffer. RNA purity was performed by spectrophotometry using NanoDrop ND-1000. RNA integrity was determined by agarose gel electrophoresis. The collected RNA was reverse transcribed into cDNA using the PrimeScript RT kit (Takara, Japan). PCR was conducted using the SYBR® Premix ExTaq™ II Kit (Takara, Japan) under the following thermocycling conditions: 95°C for 5 min, and 40 cycles of 95°C for 30 sec and 60°C for 45 sec. RNA expression was calculated using 2−∆∆CT method. U6 was used to normalize the expression level of miRNA, and GAPDH for mRNA.

Western blot

Cells were lyzed and total protein was collected using the RIPA buffer (Sigma-Aldrich, USA). Protein concentration was calculated using the BCA Kit (Pierce, USA), after which the total protein was isolated using 12% SDS-PAGE. Afterward, the protein was transferred to PVDF membranes and blocked with 5% nonfat dry milk. Lastly, the membranes were incubated with primary antibodies, such as against STAT3 (ab68153, 1:1000), FMO3 (ab126711, 1:5000), and GAPDH (ab9485, 1:2500) overnight at 4°C in shade and then with secondary antibodies (ab6721, 1:5000). All antibodies were purchased from Abcam, USA. Subsequently, the bands were visualized using an ECL kit and the relative protein level was calculated.

5-Ethynyl-20-deoxyuridine (EdU) assay

Cells were plated in 24-well plates (5 × 104 cells/well). Then the media was supplemented with 50-mM EdU solution. 24 h later, the cells were fixed and permeabilized. Cell proliferation was detected using the EdU assay kit (RiboBio). The images were visualized with a fluorescence microscope. Finally, cells stained with EdU in five randomly chosen fields were counted.

CCK-8

Cell proliferation was determined with a Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK‐8) kit (Dojindo, Japan). Cells were seeded in 96-well plates (2 × 103 cells/well). At 0 h, 12 h, 24 h, and 48 h post-transfection, the cells were treated with 10 µL of CCK-8 regent. Afterward, the absorbance at a wavelength of 450 nm was measured using a microplate reader.

Flow cytometry

Forty-eight hours after transfection, cells were harvested and centrifugated at 1120 × g for 6 min. Then the cells were washed with PBS three times. Afterward, the cells were incubated with 5 μL AnnexinV-FITC and 10 μL PI for 20 min in shade. The apoptosis rates were calculated by a flow cytometer.

Dual luciferase reporter assay

Starbase3 was used to predict the target of NEAT1. The 3ʹ untranslated region (3ʹUTR) sequences containing the potential target of miR-370-3p were synthesized and cloned into reporter gene plasmid vector pGL3 to build NEAT1 3ʹUTR wild type and 3ʹUTR Mutant. Then the cells were transfected with miR-370-3p NC mimics or miR-370-3p mimics with Lipofectamine 2000 at 37°C with 5% CO2. The cell luciferase activity was determined via the Dual-Luciferase Reporter Assay System (Promega, USA).

The target of miR-370-3p was predicted using the online database TargetScan 7.2 (http://www.targetscan.org/vert_72/). The experiment was performed as previously described.

Animal models

Male C57BL/6 mice (6 weeks of age, 20 g) and apoE−/− mice with a C57BL/6 background were provided by Qingzilan Co. Ltd. (China). Mice were randomly divided into four groups: chow (normal chow diet) group, high fat (HF, 21% protein, 24% carbohydrate, and 55% fat) group, TMAO (50 µmol/L of TMAO) group, and HF+TMAO group. After 12 weeks, mice were sacrificed and Oil-Red-O staining was applied for lesion area analysis. This experiment was authorized by the Animal Welfare Committee of Research Organization of Binhai People’s Hospital.

Statistical analysis

All data are expressed as mean ± SD. Significant differences were evaluated using Student’s t test and ANOVA. The Pearson method was used for evaluating the correlation analysis. A value of P < 0.05 was deemed statistically significant.

Results

TMAO induced excessive endothelial cell proliferation and formed a feedback loop to promote the development of AS via regulating NEAT1/miR-370-3p/STAT3/FMO3 axis.

Clinical features

As shown in Table 1, the development of AS is not associated with age, gender, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, coronary artery disease, current smoking, pulmonary disease, alcohol intake, hyperhomocysteinemia, and abdominal obesity.

Table 1.

Clinical characteristics of AS patients

Variables	Healthy control	AS patients	P
n =	30	30
Age (years)	59.73 ± 14.39	63.33 ± 8.74	N.S
Male gender	14	16	N.S
Hypertension	12	13	N.S
Hyperlipidemia	11	14	N.S
Coronary artery disease	n.a.	3	N.S
Current smoking	15	17	N.S
Pulmonary disease	n.a.	2	N.S
Alcohol intake	14	13	N.S
Hyperhomocysteinemia	12	15	N.S
Abdominal obesity	7	11	N.S

TMAO promotes the development of AS in vivo

After treatment with or without TMAO and/or high fat food for 12 weeks, mice were sacrificed and the heart and aortic root and arch were collected. The atherosclerotic plaques and lipid contents in the aorta of mice in TMAO group were markedly increased, especially in TMAO+HF group. Moreover, TMAO+HF further increased the lesion area and TMAO level (Figure 1b and c).

Figure 1.

TMAO promotes the development of AS in vivo.

TMAO was increased in AS patients

ELISA was performed to determine the plasma level of TMAO in patients diagnosed with AS. The results showed the plasma concentration of TMAO in AS patients was significantly higher than that in the normal group (Figure 2a). Moreover, TMAO increased cell viability of human aortic endothelial cells (HUVECs) in a time – and dose-dependent manner (Figure 2b).

Figure 2.

TMAO was increased in AS patients.

TMAO increases the level of NEAT1 in AS

qRT-PCR was performed to determine the expression level of NEAT1. As shown in Figure 3a, the expression of NEAT1 was significantly upregulated in AS patients. Moreover, an ROC curve was utilized to evaluate the expression of NEAT1 in AS patients. The results showed that the corresponding AUC level of NEAT1 that could distinguish AS patients from healthy controls was 0.8600 (95% confidence interval, 0.7700 to 0.9500), indicating that NEAT1 can be a sensitive biomarker for AS patients (Figure 3b). After exposure to 50 μmol/L TMAO for 48 h, the level of NEAT1 was significantly increased (Figure 3c).

Figure 3.

TMAO increases the level of NEAT1 in AS.

Knockdown of NEAT1 modulates cell proliferation and apoptosis of HUVECs

To further verify the potential roles of NEAT1 in AS, CCK-8, EdU, and flow cytometry assays were utilized to detect the effects of NEAT1 knockdown on cellular functions of HUVECs. Knockdown of NEAT1, particularly with si-NEAT1-2, significantly downregulated NEAT1, suggesting HUVECs were successfully transfected (Figure 4a). Compared with the control group, the cell viability of HUVECs was significantly increased after exposure to TMAO, which was abrogated by si-NEAT1 (Figure 4b). Meanwhile, knockdown of NEAT1 abrogated the increase of colonies induced by TMAO (Figure 4c). Moreover, the results from EdU showed that the increase in EdU positive cells induced by TMAO was reversed by knockdown of NEAT1 (Figure 4d). In addition, downregulated NEAT1 alleviated the decrease in the apoptosis rate seen in HUVECs treated with TMAO (Figure 4e).

Figure 4.

Knockdown of NEAT1 modulates the cell proliferation and apoptosis of HUVECs.

STAT3 modulates the progression of AS

To further investigate the roles of NEAT1 in AS, we explored the potential molecular mechanisms. The STAT3 pathways collectively participate in the progression of AS. As shown in Figure 5a, the plasma level of STAT3 was significantly increased in AS patients. Moreover, the protein expression of STAT3 was upregulated in cells treated with TMAO (Figure 5b).

Figure 5.

STAT3 modulates the progression of AS.

NEAT1 regulates the expression of STAT3 via sponging miR-370-3p

An increasing body of evidence suggests that lncRNAs function as ceRNA to regulate gene expression via sponging miRNAs. Starbase 3.0 and TargetScan 7.2 were applied to predict the targets of NEAT1 and miR-370-3p, respectively. Figure 6a and b show the binding sites of miR-370-3p on NEAT1 or STAT3. Moreover, a luciferase assay further verified the binding sites for miR-370-3p on NEAT1 or STAT3 (Figure 6a and b). The protein level of STAT3 was decreased by silencing NEAT1 or overexpressing miR-370-3p (Figure 6c-f). miR-370-3p was downregulated in AS patients (Figure 6g). Additionally, the expression of miR-370-3p was negatively correlated with NEAT1 and STAT3 expression (Figure 6h and i).

Figure 6.

NEAT1 regulates the expression of STAT3 via sponging miR-370-3p.

NEAT1 regulates the proliferation and apoptosis of HUVECs via sponging miR-370-3p

qRT-PCR was applied to detect the expression of miR-370-3p. As shown in Figure 6a, the expression of miR-370-3p was significantly increased in cells treated with miR-370-3p mimics (Figure 7a). Overexpressed miR-370-3p facilitated NEAT1-knockdown induced inhibition of cell viability and proliferation (Figure 7b-d). Moreover, miR-370-3p significantly enhanced the apoptosis of HUVECs (Figure 7e).

Figure 7.

NEAT1 regulates the proliferation and apoptosis of HUVECs via sponging miR-370-3p.

NEAT1 regulates the progression of AS via regulating STAT3

The expression level of STAT3 was upregulated by overexpression of STAT3 (Figure 8a). Overexpression of STAT3 abrogated the suppression of cell viability seen in HUVECs treated with a knockdown of NEAT1 (Figure 8b). This was consistent with the results from our colony formation and EdU assays (Figure 8c). As shown in Figure 8d and E, upregulation of STAT3 antagonized the effects of NEAT1 knockout on the proliferation of TMAO-HUVECs. Moreover, the increase in the apoptosis rates of TMAO-HUVECs induced by NEAT1 knockdown was reversed by overexpression of STAT3 (Figure 8e).

Figure 8.

NEAT1 regulates the progression of AS via regulating STAT3.

FMO3 is a potential target of STAT3 signaling

Furthermore, we investigated the potential underlying molecular mechanisms. As shown in Figure 9a and B, the expression of FMO3 was increased in AS tissues and cells treated with TMAO. IL-6 enhanced TMAO-induced upregulation (Figure 9c). However, celastrol (a STAT3 inhibitor) decreased the protein expression of STAT3 and FMO3 (Figure 9d). Moreover, NEAT1 knockdown suppressed the protein expression of STAT3 and FMO3, which was abated by miR-370-3p inhibitor; however, it downregulated STAT3 suppressed the expression of FMO3 (Figure 9e).

Figure 9.

FMO3 is a potential target of STAT3 pathways.

Discussion

This study is the first to suggest that TMAO-induced upregulation of NEAT1 is involved in the progression of AS. The level of TMAO and NEAT1 was increase in AS patients. High levels of TMAO and NEAT1 significantly promoted the proliferation and inhibited the apoptosis of HUVECs treated with TMAO. High TMAO plasma concentration induces endothelial dysfunction. This is in consistent with a study by Chen et al., which revealed that TMAO-induced endothelial dysfunction contributes to vascular inflammation, promoting the development of AS [10]. In this study, TMAO induced the onset of AS in vivo and endothelial dysfunction in vitro, which is in consistent with previous studies [13-17]. This may provide a promising therapeutic strategy for the elderly, the AS risk community.

Previous studies demonstrate that TMAO contributes to CVD via regulating non-coding RNA [22,25]. Dysregulated lncRNAs are collectively involved in the initiation and progression of AS [22,26]. For instance, knockdown of lncRNA FA2H-2 causes deterioration of the inflammatory response and suppresses autophagy to promote atherosclerosis-related diseases [27]. H19-upregulated Acid Phosphatase 5 induces AS and ischemic stroke [28]. NEAT1 is overexpressed in the peripheral blood of patients with myocardial infarction and promotes hypoxia-induced cardiomyocyte injury. Moreover, overexpressed NEAT1 is associated with heart failure [29]. Wu et al. reveal that TMAO-regulated NEAT1 suppresses the proliferation of endothelial cells and aggravates AS [22]. In this study, TMAO induced the overexpression of NEAT1. However, knockdown of NEAT1 degraded the cellular functions of HUVECs; these results are consistent with previous studies [22,30]. Therefore, decreasing the TMAO level may suppress the progression of AS. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear.

Increasing evidence suggests that lncRNAs participate in CVD via sponging miRNAs [22,29,31]. In this study, miR-370-3p was predicted and proved to be a target of NEAT1. Ding et al. revealed that miR-370-3p suppresses vascular migration and invasion of vascular smooth muscle cells in AS [32]. However, the additional potential roles played by miR-370 in CVD are an intriguing topic of future research. Silencing miR-370-3p restores ventricular function and decreases mortality in vivo. Gu et al demonstrated that miR-370-3p suppresses the angiogenic activity of endothelial cells [33]. Therefore, miR-370-3p may exert positive as well as negative effects in the initiation and development of CVD. Therefore, verifying the potential roles of miR-370-3p in CVD is of vital importance. In the present study, miR-370-3p was decreased in TMAO treated HUVECs. However, overexpression of miR-370-3p facilitated the effects of NEAT1 knockdown on the proliferation and increased apoptosis rates of HUVECs exposed to TMAO. This may be due to the fact that the functions of miRNAs vary depending on the type of cell and signaling pathway being targeted. The deterioration of atheroprone phenotypes, such as endothelial proliferation and inflammation, is accompanied with the development of cardiac atherosclerosis. The role of miR-370-3p differentiates in modulating the proliferation of endothelial cells. Nevertheless, it restored endothelial function and protects against AS.

lncRNAs function as ceRNA to modulate gene expression via regulating miRNAs [22,29,34]. The activation of STAT3 exacerbates cardiac dysfunction, myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury, and cardiac fibroblast activation and cardiac fibrosis [35,36]. STAT3, which has pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic properties, induces the development of AS [37,38]. The activation of JAK/STAT3 signaling upregulates VEGFR-2, promoting endothelial cell angiogenesis and endothelial monolayer permeability and the inflammatory response [39,40]. Inactivation of endothelial VEGFR1-STAT3 induced by VEGF165b may be a superior strategy for alleviating human and experimental peripheral arterial disease [41]. In this study, STAT3 was predicted and proved to be a target of miR-370-3p, and STAT3 was upregulated in AS. The expression of STAT3 was negatively correlated with miR-370-3p expression, and positively correlated with NEAT1 expression. lncRNAs participate in post-transcription through positively regulating mRNA stability via modulating mRNAs by sequestering miRNAs. In this study, NEAT1 functioned as a sponge for miR-370-3p resulting in upregulation of STAT3. Overexpression of STAT3 abrogated the effects of NEAT1 knockdown on the proliferation and apoptosis of HUVECs. Thus, the TMAO-NEAT1-miR-370-3p-STAT3 axis may participate in the progression of AS via regulating endothelial function.

FMO3, which specializes in the oxidation of xeno-substrates, predicts a high risk of chronic heart disease in women [42]. FMO3, as the main source of TMA, intensively participates in the conversion of TMA into TMAO [12], and FMO3 deficiency results in low TMAO plasma concentration and represses atherosclerosis and tissue sterol metabolism [13]. A previous study reports that Berberine decreases FMO3 as well as TMAO levels, which further inhibits the development of AS in mice [43]. In this study, FMO3 was upregulated in AS. Moreover, the activation of STAT3 signaling increased the expression of FMO3, which may promote the release of TMAO. Thence, TMAO/NEAT1/miR-370-3p/STAT3/FMO3 may form a positive feedback loop controlling the development of cardiac AS.

However, there are some limitations in this study. More patients involved in this study will make the results more convincing. Previous studies reveal that inflammation or low shear stress induces the excessive endothelial cell proliferation. However, whether there inflammation signaling has a crosslink with this stress response? This needs further investigation.

Conclusion

Taken together, TMAO-induced upregulation of NEAT1 promoted the proliferation and inhibited the apoptosis of HUVECs treated with TMAO. TMAO/NEAT1/miR-370-3p/STAT3/FMO3 may form a feedback loop that regulates HUVEC function and controls the progression of AS. These results may provide a novel therapy for the treatment of AS.