Low vision rehabilitation in improving the quality of life for patients with impaired vision: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 52 randomized clinical trials.

BACKGROUND AIM: Low vision rehabilitation optimizes the use of residual vision after severe vision loss, but also teaches skills to improve visual functioning in daily life. These skills promote independence and active participation in society. This meta-analysis was designed to evaluate the efficacy of low vision rehabilitation in improving the quality of life (QoL) in visually impaired adults.
METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Library, PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science up to January 1, 2020. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that compared rehabilitation interventions with active or inactive controls were included. The standardized mean difference (SMD) with a 95% confidence interval (CI) was estimated to compare outcomes. Two reviewers extracted data and assessed trial quality independently. All statistical analyses were performed using the standard statistical procedures of RevMan 5.2.
RESULTS: A total of 52 RCTs with 6,239 participants were included in this meta-analysis. Compared to inactive comparators including waiting list or no care, low vision rehabilitation improved vision-related QoL, visual functioning (QoL: psychological aspect), and self-efficacy or self-esteem (QoL: psychological aspect), with pooled SMDs of -0.61 (95% CI -0.95 to -0.26; P = .0006), -1.14 (95% CI -1.69 to -0.59; P < .0001), and -0.84 (95% CI -1.47 to -0.22; P < .0001), respectively. Compared to active comparators, low vision rehabilitation improved vision-related QoL (SMD -0.26; 95% CI -0.46 to -0.06; P = .01) and activities of daily living (QoL: physical aspect) (SMD -0.39; 95% CI -0.67 to -0.12 P < .0001). However, no significant difference in health-related QoL and adaptation to vision loss (QoL: psychological aspect) was found between low vision rehabilitation and inactive comparators.
CONCLUSIONS: This meta-analysis indicated that low vision rehabilitation interventions, particularly psychological therapies and methods of enhancing vision, may improve vision-related QoL and visual functioning in people with sight loss compared to usual care. Further studies should explore longer maintenance effects and the costs of several types of low vision rehabilitation. Studies characterizing the mechanisms of rehabilitation interventions in different settings, including low-income countries, are also required.

Introduction

Approximately 216.6 million people have been estimated to have moderate to severe visual impairment (<6/18) and that 36 million people are blind.[ Visual impairment is especially problematic in developing countries, where approximately 80% of all visually impaired persons live. Vision loss mainly affects older people; 82% of those who are blind and 65% of those with mild to severe vision loss are 50 years or older.[ Vision loss is one of the leading causes of disability in older people.[ Besides physical dysfunction, limitations in daily life activities, visual functioning, and anxiety, vision loss also leads to decreased life satisfaction and quality of life (QoL).[

Low vision rehabilitation for adults is a professional service that optimizes residual vision and also teaches visually impaired people skills to improve visual functioning in daily life. In addition, it helps patients to adapt to vision loss and improve psychosocial functioning. This may lead to greater independence and more active participation in society. Low vision rehabilitation should ultimately improve the QoL of visually impaired patients.

Several studies in the field of low vision rehabilitation have focused on objective tasks or specific measures of functional ability such as reading speed or other performance-based measures.[ Although these measures are important to assess functioning, they do not capture all facets of the individual's experience.[ Comprehensive patient-reported outcome measures such as health-related QoL and disease-specific QoL have been introduced because of the growing interest of governments and health insurance companies in these outcome measures as parameters for quality of care.[ In the field of low vision, increasing attention has been focused on the theoretical constructs of vision-related QoL and visual functioning as important outcomes of rehabilitation. A comprehensive literature review by Binns and colleagues showed that the evidence supporting vision rehabilitation remains unclear with respect to health-related QoL or vision-related QoL.[ However, the authors did not specifically assess methodological quality and included observational studies. Hence, this meta-analysis was designed to assess the effectiveness of low vision rehabilitation interventions on health-related QoL, vision-related QoL, and visual functioning and closely related patient-reported outcomes in visually impaired adults.

Methods

Criteria for considering studies

We included studies if they met the following criteria: a. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that compared one or more rehabilitation interventions with wait lists/no care or with usual care/other care; b. studies in which the effect of low vision rehabilitation was assessed among adults (≥18 years) of either gender with a vision impairment; and c. studies that measured health-related QoL and vision-related QoL as 2 primary outcomes or related patient-reported outcomes as secondary outcomes, such as physical and functional measures, psychological measures, and/or social measures, at any follow-up time after the intervention ended.

Studies were excluded if they met the following criteria: a. experimental trial on animals or a non-human study, non-RCTs, quasi-RCTs, or observational studies; b. study population included patients with other diseases that would affect outcomes; c. study reported in the form of an abstract, letter, editorial, expert opinion, review, or case report; or d. lack of sufficient data or failure to meet the inclusion criteria. We excluded studies focusing on the following interventions or devices: neuro-rehabilitation interventions, interventions to improve visual field loss after brain damage, medical interventions, and preferences regarding low vision aid designs.

The present study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Wangjing Hospital of Chinese Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine.

Search strategy

We searched the Cochrane Library, PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science to January 1, 2020. Our strategy was based on combinations of keywords including “low vision,” “impaired vision,” “rehabilitation,” “intervention,” “quality of life,” and “visual function.” Two assessors independently screened the titles and abstracts of each study. When a relevant study was identified, its full text was obtained for further evaluation. The full text of related references was also obtained for review. References that met the inclusion criteria were also included in the meta-analysis.

Quality assessment and data extraction

Two reviewers assessed the quality of each RCT using the risk of bias assessment tool.[ In addition, the risk of bias, for each individual study and across all studies, was evaluated and graphically displayed in figures generated by RevMan 5.2 software.[

Data for the comparative outcomes were extracted independently by 2 reviewers. Disagreements were resolved through discussion. The extracted data included first author, year of publication, sample size, intervention, participant age, follow-up time, and outcomes. These data were standardized and input into RevMan 5.2 software for analysis.[

Definition of intervention types

Considering the clinical diversity of low vision rehabilitation interventions, the studies were categorized into 4 groups of related intervention types (and by comparator):

Intervention type I: Psychological therapies and/or group programs;

Intervention type II: Methods of enhancing vision;

Intervention type III: Multidisciplinary rehabilitation programs;

Intervention type IV: Other programs.

Comparators were no care/waiting list as an inactive control group and usual care / other care as an active control group.

Statistical analysis

Data on study outcomes were combined and analyzed using the standard statistical procedures of RevMan 5.2.[ Standardized mean difference (SMD) with a 95% confidence interval (CI) was estimated to compare the outcomes. The P value and I statistic (ranging from 0%–100%) derived the Chi-Squared-based Q test and were used to assess heterogeneity between studies.[ A P value ≤.10 was deemed to represent significant heterogeneity;[ in such cases, pooled estimates were calculated using a random-effects model (the DerSimonian and Laird method [). When heterogeneity was not observed (P >.10), a fixed-effects model (the Mantel–Haenszel method [) was used. Differences in outcome measures were considered significant if the 95% CI of the pooled SMD did not include 0.

Regarding the pooled SMD estimates of the improvement in vision-related QoL and visual functioning, we performed subgroup analysis by different intervention types. In addition, we checked for publication bias using Begg funnel plots.[ If the shape of a funnel plot was not obviously asymmetrical, we concluded that there was no obvious publication bias.[ All statistical analyses were performed using the standard statistical procedures of RevMan 5.2.[

The reporting in this study is consistent with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses[ and Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews guidelines.[

Results

Characteristics of the included studies

The initial search generated 16,118 records. After removal of duplicates, 14,125 records remained, of which 13,904 were excluded after screening the title and abstracts. Following full-text review of the 221 studies chosen for further evaluation, 169 full texts were excluded, and 52 RCTs (N = 6239 participants) that met the inclusion criteria were included in the final analysis.[ Of the 52 included studies, 26 studies were performed with intervention type I, 15 with intervention type II, 7 with intervention type III, and 4 studies with intervention type IV. In addition, 20 studies compared the intervention with inactive comparators, namely no care (6 studies) or wait list (14 studies), and 26 studies compared the intervention with active comparators including usual care (13 studies) or other care (13 studies). Most studies investigated the efficacy of low vision rehabilitation in older people with visual impairment (the mean age across 23 studies was >70 years, and the mean age of 13 studies was >80 years). Details of the search process and a summary of the studies are shown in the study flow diagram (Fig. 1). Other study characteristics are shown in Table 1.

Figure 1

Flow diagram of literature search and selection of included studies for meta-analysis.

Table 1

The characteristics of included studies for meta-analysis.

		Participants			Interventions
Study/Year	Country	Total No.	Age (year)	Female	Treatment	Control	Intervention type	Follow-up time	Outcomes
Acton, JH, et al, 2016	UK	71	75.2	54%	1 to 8 sessions/home visits from a visual rehabilitation officer	waiting list receiving no care	Type III	6+4 mo	VR-QoL or difficulty in performing daily activities, consisting of mobility, visual motor skills, reading, visual information processing scales and an overall score, AEs
Bradley, P, et al, 2005	UK	12	76	50%	Group-based peer support and information provision, discussion groups, 6 leaflets with information were distributed in 6 weekly topic-specific sessions of 1.5 hours led by people experienced in living with AMD	waiting list, intervention delayed for 6 weeks	Type I	6 wks	MacDQOL, selected QoL items, 12-item Well-being Questionnaire
Brody BL, et al, 1999	USA	92	79 ± 5.79	50%	self-management group focused on behavioural skills training for elderly adults with AMD who were legally blind in one or both eyes. 6 sessions of 2 hours in groups of 7–10 participants	Participants on the waiting list did not receive treatment	Type I	6+4 wks	POMS, QWBS, AMD-SEQ, Health and impact Questionnaire
Brody BL, et al, 2002	USA	231	80.9 ± 6.1	NR	Self-management group intervention in which 8–10 participants had six 2-h sessions led by an experienced professional in public health and behavioural medicine	a series of 12 h of audiotapes of health lectures on AMD and healthy ageing	Type I	6+4.5 mo	POMS, NEI-VFQ mediators, AMD-SEQ, DSSI, LOT-R
Brody BL, et al, 2006	USA	32	81.5 ± 7.5	NR	Self-management group intervention in which 8–10 participants had six 2-h sessions led by an experienced professional in public health and behavioural medicine	a series of 12 h of audiotapes of health lectures on AMD and healthy ageing	Type I	6+4.5 mo	GDS-15: extent of depressive symptoms, NEI-VFQ, DSSI, LOT-R and AMD-SEQ
Brunnstrom G, et al, 2004	Sweden	46	76 (20–90)	NR	Improved lighting in the living room in addition to usual/basic lighting adjustments in other rooms	only usual, basic lighting adjustments in other rooms, no improved lighting in living room	Type II	6 mo	PGWB = HR-QoL questionnaire, PGWB questionnaire, Factors on perceived QoL
Bryan JL, et al, 2015	USA	81	42 (20–74)	69%	Expressive writing intervention, expressing emotions through written disclosure of a post-traumatic experience for 20 min on three separate d during a 1-wk period	neutral writing intervention, however, similar in dose and intensity	Type I	3 and 6 wk, 1 wk, 6 wk	CES-D, PSS, NEI-VFQ, mental health subscale, Social support Physical symptoms, NEI-VFQ for VR-QoL
Burggraaff MC, et al, 2012	Nether-lands	122	77.4	58.2%	Usual instructions from supplier when CCTV was delivered combined with training sessions in the use of the device from a low vision therapist.	Received only usual instructions from the supplier who delivered the CCTV	Type II	3+2 mo	Reading speed, LVQOL, AVL, CES-D, EQ-5D
Christy B, et al, 2010	India	436	43.7 (16–86)	30%	Centre and/or community-based service delivery	Centre-based with non-interventional community visits	Type III	9+4-5 mo	WHO-QoL for HR-QoL, daily activities
Coco-Martín MB, et al, 2013	Spain	41	76.1 ± 7.8	61%	Immediate intervention: low vision assessment, within 2 wks of enrolment	Participants on the waiting list did not receive treatment	Type I	6+12 mo	Reading performance, QoL
Coco-Martín MB, et al, 2017	Spain	51	68.5 ± 13.8	61%	Reading rehabilitation program (RRP)	Participants on the waiting list did not receive treatment	Type I	6 + 12 mo	The reading speed, reading duration, and font size.
Conrod BE, et al, 1998	Canada	49	70	NR	Five weekly individual 1-hour training sessions in which participants, under supervision, followed a perceptual training protocol manual	Fully sighted persons, no training	Type I	7–8 wks	Distance and near acuity, Frostig Figure Ground test, Coping, Activity level, Personal assessment of residual vision
Draper E, et al, 2016	USA	55	63-66	54%	Clinic-basedLVR: visit 1 to 5 in clinic	Home-based low vision rehabilitation: visit 1, 3, 5 in clinic; visit 2, 4 at home	Type III	2–3 mo	VR-QoL: VFQ-48
Dunbar HM, et al, 2013	UK	100	57	62%	Immediate intervention: low vision assessment, within 2 wks of enrolment	intervention, LV assessment, 3 months after enrolment, providing information,discussing aids and services and dispensing prescribed LV aids	Type II	3 + 2.5 mo	Difference in mean change in Activity Inventory (visual ability) after 3 mo and after 6 mo
Eklund K, et al, 2008	Sweden	229	78 (66–91)	74%	Health education programme ’Discovering new ways’, Two h a wk	Individual intervention programme, mainly consisted of 1-2 onehour sessions	Type I	4 and 28, 6 mo	validated questionnaire, ADL staircase, SF-36: general HRQOL, Self-reported health problems
Gall C, et al, 2011	Germany	42	57.1 ± 13.6	31%	Centre and / or community-based service delivery	Fully sighted persons, no training	Type II	2-mo	Visual field changes and vision-related quality of life
Girdler SJ, et al.2010	Australia	77	79.1	64.9%	usual care plus vision self-management, including self-efficacy and a group model based on service delivery theories and principles, 8-week (24 h) structured programme of welcome and warm-up exercises, learning sessions and homework assignments plus revisions	usual care, which was based on a one-to-one case management model.	Type I	12 + 4 wks	Activity Card Sort (ACS), SF-36, GDS, GSES, AVLS, AMD-SEQ
Gleeson M, et al, 2015	Australia	120	75 ± 11	71%	Alexander Technique to improve balance + usual care by ’guide dogs’ and community services with 12 weekly sessions	Usual care by ’guide dogs’ and community services	Type IV	12+9 mo	physical measures, falls, balance, mobility, GDS-5, PANAS, IVI, PVAS, KAP, Socialisation
Goldstein RB, et al, 2007	USA	154	77.5 (39–92)	64.2%	educational video which addressed educational, emotional and motivational needs associated with LV	waiting list, received no care	Type I	2 wks + 3 mo	Knowledge, Attitude, Behaviour, Willingness to use devices
Herrero AJ, et al, 2014	Spain	188	85.2 ± 6.682.7 ± 6.9	70.2%	in-home BA + LVR or ST + LVR.	waiting list control group	Type I	4 mo	depressive disorder, activity inventory, NEI-VFQ, NEI-VFQ quality-of-life
Holloway E, et al, 2018	USA	18	NR	NR	6–8 weekly telephone sessions of PST-PC delivered by expertly trained practitioners	waiting list control group	Type II	6–8 weekly	Depressive symptoms (PHQ-9), health-related quality of life (HRQoL; Assessment of QoL Instrument-7D),
Jackson ML, et al, 2017	USA	37	71	49%	Usual comprehensive vision rehabilitation with optical aids of preference, plus access to a desk model video magnifier	usual comprehensive vision rehabilitation with optical aids of preference	Type II	1 mo	Reading speed in words per minute, IVI, DASS, AI-reading subscale
Kaltenegger K, et al, 2019	Germany	37	72 (67.5–79)	57%	Reading training with sequentially presented text (RSVP) in addition to magnifying aids	placebo training in addition to magnifying aids	Type II	12 wks	Reading speed, Fixation stability and preferred retinal locus, MADRS, DemTect, IVI
Kaluza G, et al, 1996	Germany	23	52 (20–68)	78.2%	training to support peoples’ coping with the threats and demands of the disease and to enable them to self-regulate stress-induced elevated IOP levels	waiting list control group	Type I	8 wks	Intraocular pressure (IOP), Psychological strain (KAB), Heart rate
Kamga H, et al, 2017	Canada	80	76	62%	cognitive behavioural therapy-based self-care tool intervention plus up to three coaching 10-minute phone calls by a trained former nurse	usual care: waiting list control group receiving the intervention after follow-up with one phone call	Type I	8 wks	PHQ-9: depressive symptoms, GAD-7: generalised anxiety symptoms, Life Space assessment questionnaire, Self-efficacy scale
Leat SJ, et al, 2017	Canada	14	82	20%	eccentric viewing training within 1 week after randomisation 1.5-2 hrs and then home training with an observer giving feedback on accuracy	closed-circuit television delivered and set up within one week after randomisation at home	Type II	6 wks	Reading accuracy and reading speed and performance, Reading behaviour inventory, VFQ-25: VR-QoL, GDS: depression
Luo RJ, et al, 2011	China	500	NR	NR	provision of magnifying visual aids and training	waiting list control group			VRQL, the efficacy of rehabilitative treatments
McCabe P, et al, 2000	USA	97	76 (19–91)	53.6%	Family rehabilitation intervention. The social work interview included an exploration of the meaning of vision loss for the family unit and the ways the family members worked together to adapt to the loss	individual rehabilitation intervention, which focused solely on the participant. Family members were excluded from all sessions	Type III	NR	Self-reported Functional Assessment Questionnaire (FAQ), Observer-rated FVPT
Mielke A, et al, 2013	Germany	20	79 (65–85)	65%	provision of magnifying visual aids and training	waiting list, rehabilitation possible after 3 months	Type II	3+2.5 mo	GDS, ADS-L, DemTecT, MMS, NEI-VFQ 25, IREST
Mozaffar Jalali MD, et al, 2014	Iran	60	20-40	NR	group-based rational emotive behavioural therapy which is a comprehensive, active-directive psychotherapy focusing on resolving emotional and behavioural problems	no training	Type I	1 mo	DASS, Jones irrational beliefs questionnaire, Eysenck's self-esteem inventory
Nollet CL, et al, 2016	UK	85	70	59%	trained therapists delivered a seven-step cognitive behavioural therapy to approach problems participants wanted to address.	no intervention other than a 6-wk low vision assessment	Type I	6+4 mo	depressive symptoms, BDI-II, GDS-15, visual functioning, VR-QoL, reading ability
Pankow L, et al, 2004	USA	30	77.8 (65–90)	56.7%	orientation & mobility training and/or blind rehabilitation teaching and/or LV evaluation	waiting list (education regarding ocular disease)	Type III	4–6 wks, 3 to 3.5 mo	NAS2: Nottingham Adjustment Scale, FIMBA, performance with respect to living skills, orientation and mobility skills
Patodia Y, et al, 2017	Canada	16	NR	NR	LV outpatient treatment including examination, prescription of low vision devices for 4-wk use to determine which would be most beneficial and single training session	LV examination, but no intervention	Type II	4 wks	VA LV VFQ-48: VR-QoL, visual ability
Pearce E, et al.2011	UK	120	73.1	37.5%	A 1-hour appointment with a low vision support worker 2 weeks after the initial low vision assessment, reviewing handling of low vision devices, discussing daily issues at home, focusing on low vision devices	received a well-person check with a nurse, only measuring weight, height, vision and blood pressure	Type II	1 and 3 mo, 2.5 mo	Assesses vision-related activities of daily living, social and recreational, low vision device handling
PinnigerR, et al, 2013	Australia	17	79.4	100%	Tango dance group programme; sessions of 1.5 hrs, twice a wk, during 4 wks	waiting list, only ’post test’ interview conducted	Type IV	4 wks	NEI VFQ-25, SWL scale, GDS-short version, Rosenberg self-esteem scale
Rees G, et al, 2015	Australia	153	80 ± 8	60%	Group-based self-management programme focusing on coping with illness and disability. Weekly 3-h sessions for 8 wks offered by two LVR counsellors and guest speakers	usual care provided by a LVR service, initial assessment by multidisciplinary team, optometric assessment and prescription of optical aids, further training provided by the multidisciplinary team	Type I	1 and 6 mo	Depressive, Anxiety and Stress Symptoms, IVI, GSES: self-efficacy, AVL: adaptation to Age-related Vision Loss, Impact of Vision Impairment, VR-QoL
Reeves BC, et al, 2004	UK	226	81	66.4%	CLVR provided by the hospital eye service and CLVR enhanced with home visits from a rehabilitation officer for the visually impaired	CLVR supplemented with home visits, from a community care worker, which did not include CELVR	Type III	12 mo	VR-QoL core measure, SF-36, NAS, Measured task performance, LVA (Low Vision Aid) use
Rovner BW, et al, 2007	USA	206	81.2	69.9%	PST: teaching problem-solving skills, in addition to care-as-usual	usual care, provided by ophthalmologist or other health care providers	Type I	2 and 6 mo	DSM-IV diagnosis of depression, HDRS, VA, Contrast sensitivity, NEI VFQ-17
Rovner BW, et al, 2013	USA	241	82	63.5%	PST teaches problem-solving skills in a structured way to enable a participant to identify his problems, generate and select a solution	The ST therapists informed participants that its purpose was to explore the impact of vision loss on their lives	Type I	3 and 6 mo	TVF, NEI VFQ 25 + supplement, AI, Physical health status, PHQ
Deemer AD, et al, 2017	USA	188	84 ± 7	70%	In home behavioural activation which focuses on targeting behaviours that might maintain/worsen depression + low vision rehabilitation	in-home supportive therapy controlling for the nonspecific effects of attention + low vision rehabilitation	Type I	4+2 mo	PHQ-9, NEI-VFQ, AI: Activity Inventory, NEI-VFQ-25 plus
Rumrill PD. 1999	USA	48	43.6 (16–69)	64.6%	2 sessions and one follow along visit after 8 weeks, training by a rehabilitation professional	waiting list control	Type I	16 wks	Accomodation self-efficacy, Accomodation activity, Americans with Disabilities Act knowledge
Scanlan JM, et al, 2004	Canada	64	81	64.1%	extended teaching programme in reading with microscopes, consisting of five onehour sessions at theLV clinic	traditional teaching session of 1-hour in reading with microscopes	Type II	12+7 wks	NEI-VFQ, reading ability
Seiple W, et al, 2011	USA	36	79 / 78.5	50%	Visual awareness and eccentric viewing, Control of reading eye movements, Reading practice with sequential presentation of lexical information	delayed treatment for 18 weeks	Type II	18 wks	Reading performance, VR-QoL, HR-QoL, depressive symptoms, adaptation to vision loss
Smith HJ, et al, 2005	UK	243	81	64.6%	Custom treatment: incorporating bilateral prisms to match participants’ preferred power and base direction; Standard treatment: incorporating standard bilateral prisms	placebo, consisting of spectacles matched in weight and thickness to prism spectacles but without the prism	Type II	3 mo	logMAR VA, Reading speed performance, NEI-VFQ-25, activities of daily living performance, helpfulness and use of test spectacles
Stelmack JA, et al, 2008	USA	126	78.9	98%	5 weekly sessions (approximately 2 hours per session) at the LV clinic to learn strategies for more effective use of remaining vision and use of LV devices	Treatment was delayed for 4 mo	Type III	4+2 mo	change in visual reading ability, mobility, visual information processing, visual motor skills and overall visual ability
Stelmack JA, et al, 2017	USA	323	80 ± 10.5	97%	LV devices with a rehabilitation therapist providing instruction and homework on the use of low vision devices, eccentric viewing, and environmental modification	Receiving LV devices with no therapy	Type II	4 mo, 3 to 3.5 mo	Reading, visual information, visual motor, and mobility, reading speed, critical print size, and reading acuity
Stroupe KT, et al, 2018	USA	323	80 ± 10.5	2.8%	Low-vision devices with therapy	LV devices without therapy	Type IV	4 mo	changes in functional visual ability, costs
Sun W, et al, 2012	China	100	62 (25–75)	NR	Psychological therapy, however, specific content unclear + physical therapy by an ophthalmologist	physical therapy, however, specific content unclear	Type I	6 mo	SDS, SAS, SCL-90
Taylor JJ, et al, 2017	UK	100	71	62%	Portable electronic device on top of nonelectronic optical devices	Nonelectronic optical devices	Type II	2 and 4 mo	Reading measurements, instrumental activities of daily living, NV-VFQ-15, EQ-5D, VR-QoL
Tey CS, et al, 2019	Singa-pore	165	60.2 ± 11.3	36.2%	LV self-management programme on top of usual care in which participants picked a goal they wished to achieve, focus on learning process of new techniques to enhance activities of daily living, providing information	Standard ophthalmologic care and low vision aid training and referral to occupational or mobility training at the participant's request	Type I	2 wks and 6 mo	IVI-28: VR-QoL, DASS, GSES, EQ-5D and SF-12: HR-QoL
Van der Aa HPA, et al, 2017	Nether-Lands, Belgium	265	74	70%	Stepped-care (+ usual care) by supervised occupational therapists, social workers, and psychologists from low vision rehabilitation organisations	Usual care by rehabilitation centre or any other healthcare service	Type I	at least 12 mo	Cumulative incidence of depression and anxiety disorder after 24 mo measured with the MINI diagnostic interview
Waterman H, et al, 2016	UK	49	81 (65–96)	65%	Home safety programme by occupational therapist visiting twice and making safety modifications plus one phone call	Usual care from NHS three social visits, two telephone calls by trained lay visitors/volunteers	Type IV	3 and 6 mo	Falls and injurious falls, Physical activity, SF-12: QoL, visual disability, VR-QoL, AFRIS

AEs = adverse events, AMD = age-related macular degeneration, AFRIS = Attitudes to Falls-Related Interventions Scale, AMD-SEQ = age-related macular degeneration-self efficacy questionnaire, AI = activity inventory, BA = behavior activation, BDI-II = Beck Depression Inventory – II, CCTV = closed-circuit television, CES-D = center for epidemiologic studies-depression scale, DSSI = Duke Social Support Index, FVPT = functional visual performance test, HR-QoL = Heath-related quality of life, IVI = impact of visual impairment profile, Intervention type I = psychological therapies and/or group programmes, Intervention type II = methods of enhancing vision, Intervention type III = multidisciplinary rehabilitation programmes, Intervention type IV = other programmes, LVR = low vision rehabilitation, LV = low vision, LVQOL = low vision quality of life questionnaire, LOT-R = Life Orientation Test-Revised, LVR = low vision rehabilitation, MINI = mini-international neuropsychiatric interview, MacDQOL = macular degeneration quality of life questionnaire, MADRS = Montgomery–Åsberg Depression Rating Scale, NHS = National Health Service, NEI-VFQ = National Eye Institute visual functioning questionnaire, POMS = profile of mood states, PST = problem solving treatment, PHQ-9 = patient health questionnaire-9-item version PGWB = Psychological and General Well-Being scale, QoL = quality of life, QWBS = Quality of Well-Being Scale, SDS = Self-rating Depression Scale, SAS = Self-rating Anxiety Scale, SCL-90 = Symptom Checklist 90-items, TVF = targeted vision function, VR-QoL = vision-related quality of life, VRQL = vision-related quality of life.

Quality assessment

Risk-of-bias graphs were generated to assess the quality of studies. Data on the risk of bias for each RCT and across RCTs are presented as percentages (see Figure 1 and 2, Supplemental Digital Content which illustrate the Risk of bias as percentages and summary of each included study). The risk-of-bias graphs indicated generally good methodological quality. Most studies had adequate (low risk) random sequence generation, as random number tables, computer random number generators, or other low-tech methods were used to randomize participants. Risks due to blinding issues were unclear in previous studies because, in the field of low vision, most trials used a pragmatic approach in which masking of participants and personnel were not possible. The risk of attrition bias in most studies was considered low because follow-up rates and compliance were similar in the groups, and analyses were often based on the intention-to-treat principle with limited attrition. For 10 studies, attrition bias was unclear, and another 10 studies seemed to have a high risk. The unclear risk of bias was observed mainly in performance and reporting bias.

Effects of low vision rehabilitation on vision-related QoL

Thirteen studies including 922 participants compared low vision rehabilitation with wait list or no care addressing vision-related QoL. As shown in Figure 2, compared to wait list or no care, low vision rehabilitation improved vision related QoL, with pooled SMDs of −0.61 (95% CI −0.95 to −0.26; P = .0006). As significant heterogeneity was observed (I2 = 82%), pooled analysis was conducted using the random-effect model. We further conducted subgroup analysis according to different intervention types. Subgroup analysis revealed significant difference between low vision rehabilitation and wait list or no care with regard to vision-related QoL, with pooled SMDs of −0.28 (95% CI −0.47 to −0.08) for intervention type I, but no significant different for intervention type II and III, with pooled SMD of −0.19 (95% CI −0.54 to 0.15) and −1.04 (95% CI −2.24 to 0.17) respectively (Table 2).

Figure 2

Forest plot of comparison between low vision rehabilitation and waiting list or no care with regard to vision-related QoL.

Table 2

The efficacy of low vision rehabilitation with regard to vision-related QoL for patients with impaired vision.

			Pooled results
Subgroups	No. of studies	No. of patients	SMD	95% CI	P value	Analytical effect model
Compared with waiting list or no care
Intervention type I	4	433	-0.28	−0.47, −0.08	.005	Fixed-effect model
Intervention type II	5	180	−0.82	−1.67, 0.03	.06	Random-effect model
Intervention type III	4	309	−0.77	−1.62, 0.08	.07	Random-effect model
Compared with active comparator
Intervention type I	7	1245	−0.11	−0.24, 0.01		Random-effect model
Intervention type II	8	660	−0.24	−0.40, −0.08		Random-effect model
Intervention type III	3	464	0.01	−0.18, 0.20		Random-effect model
Intervention type IV	2	163	−0.21	−0.53, 0.10		Random-effect model

SMD = standardized mean difference, CI = confidence intervals.

Eighteen studies including 2342 participants compared the effects of low vision rehabilitation with active comparators on vision-related QoL. As shown in Figure 3, compared to active comparators, low vision rehabilitation was more successful in improving vision-related QoL, with a pooled SMD of −0.15 (95% CI −0.25 to −0.04; P = .007). As significant heterogeneity was observed (I2 = 35%), pooled analysis was conducted using the random-effect model. We further conducted subgroup analysis according to different intervention types. Significant results were observed for intervention type II, with pooled SMDs of −0.24 (95% CI −0.40 to −0.08). However, we observed no significant difference between active comparators and low vision rehabilitation using intervention types I (SMD −0.11; 95% CI −0.24 to 0.01), III (SMD 0.01; 95% CI −0.18 to 0.20), and IV (SMD −0.21; 95% CI −0.53 to 0.10) (Table 2).

Figure 3

Forest plot of comparison between low vision rehabilitation and active comparator with regard to vision-related QoL.

Effects of low vision rehabilitation on visual functioning

Nine studies including 693 participants compared low vision rehabilitation with wait list or no care in terms of their effects on visual functioning. As shown in Figure 4, compared to wait list or no care, low vision rehabilitation was more successful in improving visual functioning, with a pooled SMD of −0.86 (95% CI −1.40 to −0.33; P = .002). As significant heterogeneity was observed (I2 = 90%), the pooled analysis was conducted using the random-effect model. We further conducted subgroup analysis according to different intervention types. Subgroup analysis revealed differences between low vision rehabilitation and wait list or no care for their effects on visual functioning; pooled SMDs were −1.23 (95% CI −2.18 to −0.28) for intervention type I and −0.86 (95% CI −1.50 to −0.23) for intervention type II. However, no significant difference was found for intervention type III, with a pooled SMD of −0.16 (95% CI −0.44 to 0.13) (Table 3).

Figure 4

Forest plot of comparison between low vision rehabilitation and waiting list or no care with regard to visual functioning.

Table 3

The efficacy of low vision rehabilitation with regard to visual functioning for patients with impaired vision.

			Pooled results
Subgroups	No. of studies	No. of patients	SMD	95% CI	Analytical effect model
Compared with waiting list or no care
Intervention type I∗	5	456	−1.23	−2.18, −0.28	Random-effect model
Intervention type II∗	2	44	−0.86	−1.50, −0.23	Random-effect model
Intervention type III	2	193	−0.16	−0.44, 0.13	Random-effect model
Compared with active comparator
Intervention type I∗	9	1334	−0.14	−0.25, −0.04	Fixed-effect model
Intervention type II	3	162	−0.22	−0.59, 0.15	Fixed-effect model
Intervention type IV	1	120	0.03	−0.33, 0.39	–

SMD = standardized mean difference, CI = confidence intervals.

Twelve studies including 1453 participants compared low vision rehabilitation with active comparators in terms of changes in visual functioning. As shown in Figure 5, compared to active comparators, low vision rehabilitation more successfully improved visual functioning, with pooled SMDs of −0.13 (95% CI −0.23 to −0.03; P = .01). As no significant heterogeneity was observed (I2 = 0%), the pooled analysis was conducted using the fixed-effect model. Our subgroup analysis showed significant improvement of visual functioning with low vision rehabilitation using intervention type I, with a pooled SMD of −0.14 (95% CI −0.25 to −0.04). However, no significant difference in the improvement in visual functioning was found between active comparators and low vision rehabilitation using intervention types II (SMD −0.22; 95% CI −0.59 to 0.15) and IV (SMD 0.03; 95% CI −0.33 to 0.39) (Table 3).

Figure 5

Forest plot of comparison between low vision rehabilitation and active comparator with regard to visual functioning.

Effects of low vision rehabilitation on health-related QoL

Compared to wait list or no care, low vision rehabilitation did not result in greater improvement in health-related QoL, with a pooled SMD of 0.02 (95% CI −0.23 to 0.28). No significant result was found based on subgroup analyses (intervention type I: SMD 0.26; 95% CI −0.28 to 0.80; intervention type II: SMD −0.08; 95% CI −0.37 to 0.21). Compared to active comparators, low vision rehabilitation showed no greater improvement in health-related QoL (SMD −0.08; 95% CI −0.18 to 0.03), nor was there greater improvement for any of the subgroups (intervention type I: SMD −0.09; 95% CI −0.39 to 0.20; type II: SMD −0.09; 95% CI −0.28 to 0.09; type III: SMD −0.10; 95% CI −0.31 to 0.12; intervention type IV: SMD -0.05; 95% CI −0.70 to 0.60) (Table 4).

Table 4

The efficacy of low vision rehabilitation with regard to health-related QoL for patients with impaired vision.

			Pooled results
Subgroups	No. of studies	No. of patients	SMD	95% CI	Analytical effect model
Compared with waiting list or no care	3	237	0.02	−0.23, 0.28	Fixed-effect model
Intervention type I	1	54	0.26	−0.28, 0.80	–
Intervention type III	2	183	−0.08	−0.37, 0.21	Fixed-effect model
Compared with active comparator	9	1461	−0.08	−0.18, 0.03	Fixed-effect model
Intervention type I	4	600	−0.09	−0.39, 0.20	Fixed-effect model
Intervention type II	2	443	−0.09	−0.28, 0.09	Fixed-effect model
Intervention type III	2	375	−0.10	−0.31, 0.12	Fixed-effect model
Intervention type IV	1	43	−0.05	−0.70, 0.60	Fixed-effect model

SMD = standardized mean difference, CI = confidence intervals.

Effects of low vision rehabilitation on other aspects of QoL

In addition, Compared to wait list or no care, no significant difference was observed in activities of daily living and adaptation to vision loss, with pooled SMDs of −0.04 (95% CI −0.33 to 0.26) and −0.11 (95% CI −0.51 to 0.29), respectively. However, we found significant improvement in self-efficacy or self-esteem with low vision rehabilitation (SMD −0.84; 95% CI −1.47 to −0.22). Compared to active comparators, no significant difference between low-vision rehabilitation and active comparators was found for activities of daily living (SMD −0.15; 95% CI −0.37 to 0.07). However, significant improvement in activities of daily living was found with intervention type I (SMD −0.39; 95% CI −0.67 to −0.12). In addition, no significant difference was observed between low vision rehabilitation and active comparators in self-efficacy or self-esteem (for all subgroups) or adaptation to vision loss (for all subgroups) (Table 5).

Table 5

The efficacy of low vision rehabilitation with regard to other QoL for patients with impaired vision.

			Pooled results
Subgroups	No. of studies	No. of patients	SMD	95% CI	Analytical effect model
Compared with waiting list or no care
Activities of daily living	2	181	−0.04	−0.33, 0.26	Fixed-effect model
Self-efficacy or self-esteem∗	5	550	−0.84	−1.47, −0.22	Random-effect model
Adaptation to vision loss	2	97	−0.11	−0.51, 0.29	Fixed-effect model
Compared with active comparator
Activities of daily living	3	328	−0.15	−0.37, 0.07	Fixed-effect model
Intervention type I∗	2	208	−0.39	−0.67, −0.12	Fixed-effect model
Intervention type IV	1	120	0.11	−0.25, 0.47	–
Self-efficacy or self-esteem	5	560	−0.10	−0.27, 0.06	Fixed-effect model
Intervention type I	4	427	−0.06	−0.26, 0.15	Fixed-effect model
Intervention type III	1	133	−0.22	−0.56, 0.12	–
Adaptation to vision loss	6	993	−0.08	−0.20, 0.05	Fixed-effect model
Intervention type I	3	495	−0.11	−0.28, 0.07	Fixed-effect model
Intervention type II	1	122	−0.30	−0.65, 0.06	–
Intervention type III	2	376	−0.02	−0.24, 0.19	Fixed-effect model

SMD = standardized mean difference, CI = confidence intervals.

Publication bias

Begg funnel plots were generated to assess publication bias in the included studies. As shown in Figure 6, no obvious asymmetry was present, indicating a lack of publication bias.

Figure 6

Begg funnel plot for detecting publication bias (vision-related QoL, health-related QoL, and visual functioning).

Discussion and conclusion

Low vision rehabilitation for adults is a professional service to optimize residual vision and also teaches visually impaired people to improve (visual) functioning in daily life. Other goals may be to help patients adapt to vision loss or improve psychosocial functioning. This may lead to greater independence and more active participation in society. Low vision rehabilitation should ultimately improve the QoL of visually impaired patients.

Low vision rehabilitation is not available everywhere, and when available, it is organized differently in nearly every country. Some countries may have multidisciplinary in- or outpatient centers, where occupational therapists, optometrists, low vision specialists, clinical physicists, psychologists, social workers, mobility and orientation trainers, and computer trainers work together.[ Other countries have a single-service system, where, for example, the prescription of optical aids is completed by 1 organization, and social work is provided by another. In addition, in some countries, outpatient services are linked to ophthalmology departments, for example, in academic hospitals, whereas in others, this is not the case.[ Individual or group sessions with social workers or psychologists seem to be increasingly common, as are home environment assessments and training sessions for the use of optical or other aids (e.g., canes) and low vision software.[ Training in leisure time or vocational activities is also an important aspect of rehabilitation. Depending on agreements between organizations or policies in different countries, low vision rehabilitation services may be provided by commercial, non-profit, or charity organizations.[

In this review, we adopted a broad perspective to map and summarize evidence from RCTs in which several types of rehabilitation interventions were evaluated with the goal of improving QoL in adults with low vision. We adopted both health-related QoL and vision-related QoL as primary outcomes because general and disease-specific measures are used across medical specialties so that policy makers can make informed decisions about resources. The interpretation of our results is complicated by the fact that low vision rehabilitation is not a standard process, as interventions are highly tailored and can vary in different settings, where a mixture of different optometric or therapeutic components are used. For this reason, we grouped the study interventions into 4 broad categories. Unlike several other Cochrane Reviews, which present results by comparison, in the main text, we have presented effects on an outcome basis, which allows us to explore the consistency of the effects of several types of low vision rehabilitation interventions on each QoL, vision-related QoL, or related outcome.[ Heterogeneity was mainly found in the analysis of vision-related QoL and depression. We performed subgroup analyses and also found significant heterogeneity except the analysis of other QoL. For analysis with significant heterogeneity, we used random-effect models to analyze the results to eliminate the influence of heterogeneity. Considering small number of studies in each subgroup, we did not perform sensitivity analysis. The obvious heterogeneity may mainly cause by the multiple interventions the studies used, though we summarized these interventions and classified different types.

Our results indicated that some low vision rehabilitation interventions, particularly psychological therapies and methods of enhancing vision, may improve vision-related QoL and visual functioning in people with sight loss better than usual care. Although various rehabilitation interventions were used across studies, our comparison of low vision rehabilitation and active or inactive comparators was consistent. For vision-related QoL and visual functioning, comparisons of low vision rehabilitation with both active and inactive comparators showed significantly greater improvement. In addition, the effect size for comparisons with inactive comparators was larger than that for active comparators (SMD of −0.46 for inactive comparators and −0.15 for active comparators for vision-related QoL; SMD = −0.86 for inactive comparators and −0.13 for active comparators for visual functioning). This consistency may support the potential benefits of active rehabilitation interventions for low vision.

A limitation of our results is that participants in the included studies were mainly individuals with age-related macular degeneration living in high-income countries. Further studies are required in middle- and low-income countries if low vision services are available. Other “forgotten” subgroups, which should be separately addressed, are young and working age adults. Only 1 (unfortunately rather low quality) RCT was found that addressed work-related issues when living with vision loss. As the prevalence of visual impairment in working age adults and children is low, we encourage collaboration with other (inter-) national research groups in organizing adequately powered trials providing more and stronger evidence on the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs. Apart from QoL in younger adults, these outcomes should focus on return to work. Other subgroups should receive more attention regarding the implementation of effective interventions, for example, people with multiple disabilities, such as intellectual disabilities or concurrent hearing disabilities. Another potential limitation of our methodology is the use of the SMD, which is the most common pooling method for instruments that use different scales. Finally, in clinical practice, training in the use of modern devices such as user-friendly computer software, tablets, and smartphones specifically for visually impaired individuals are increasingly offered. These interventions may increase participation, but further studies are required to evaluate their effectiveness and cost-effectiveness. Finally, the diversity of visual acuity and visual field in the visual impaired patients may affect the quality of life, which was failed to evaluate in this analysis and may lead to any risk of bias in the results. Thus, future propensity score matched studies should be conducted to avoid these multiple risk factors.

The present meta-analysis indicated that some low vision rehabilitation interventions, particularly psychological therapies and methods of enhancing vision, may improve vision-related QoL and visual functioning in people with sight loss compared to usual care. Further studies should explore the longer maintenance effects and costs of several types of low vision rehabilitation. Studies on the mechanisms of rehabilitation interventions in different settings, including low-income countries, are also required.

Author contributions

Conceptualization: Jianhua Liu, Weidong Zhang, Jiangzhou Guo.

Data curation: Jianhua Liu, Weidong Zhang, Jiangzhou Guo.

Formal analysis: Jianhua Liu, Weidong Zhang.

Methodology: Jige Dong, Yaping Chen.

Software: Jianhua Liu, Yaping Chen, Jiangzhou Guo.

Validation: Jige Dong, Shuai Tong.

Writing – original draft: Jianhua Liu, Jige Dong, Yaping Chen, Shuai Tong.

Writing – review & editing: Shuai Tong, Jiangzhou Guo.