Muscle Damage and Performance after Single and Multiple Simulated Matches in University Elite Female Soccer Players.

The present study aimed to compare changes in muscle damage and performance parameters after playing single versus multiple soccer matches to examine fixture congestion effects on performance. Twelve elite female university soccer players performed single, three and six consecutive 90-min bouts of the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST) with ≥12-weeks between conditions in a pseudo-randomized order. Heart rate, blood lactate, rating of perceived exertion and covering distance in each LIST were examined. Changes in several types of muscle damage (e.g., maximal voluntary isometric torque of the knee extensors: MVC-KE) and performance measures (e.g., Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1: YYIR1) were taken before each LIST, 1 h, and 1-5 d after the last LIST. The total distance covered during the LIST was shorter (p < 0.05) in the 2nd-3rd, or 2nd-6th LISTs when compared with the 1st LIST. Changes (p < 0.05) in all measures were observed after the LIST, and the greatest changes were observed after the six than after the three LISTs followed by one LIST (e.g., largest changes in MVC-KE: -26 > -20 > -14%; YYIR1: -31 > -26 > -11%). Many of the variables did not recover to the baseline for 5 d after six LISTs. These suggest that fixture congestion induces greater muscle damage and performance decline than a single match.

RCT Entities:   Population Interventions Outcomes

1. Introduction

Playing a soccer (football) match induces muscle damage that is represented by a combination of delayed onset muscle soreness and prolonged decreases in muscle function [1,2,3,4]. Systematic review papers have shown that a soccer match alters muscle damage markers, impairs physical performance such as sprint and jump abilities [5], and exacerbates perceptual responses for at least three days post-match [6]. Andersen et al. [1] showed significant decreases in sprint performance (−3%), countermovement jump (CMJ) height (−4%), peak concentric contraction torque of knee extension (−7%) and flexion (−9%), and increases in serum creatine kinase (CK) activity (+152%) and muscle soreness in Swedish and Norwegian female players after the first friendly international soccer match of the season in the highest division, and CMJ height was still reduced (−3%) at the beginning of the second match performed three days later. Moreover, Hughes et al. [4] found that muscle soreness and increased plasma CK activity lasted for seven days after an official soccer match of youth female players. Additionally, Thomas et al. [3] reported that maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVC) torque of the knee extensors (MVC-KE) and countermovement jump (CMJ) height decreased, muscle soreness developed and plasma creatine kinase (CK) activity increased for three days after 90 min of a simulated soccer match using the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST) performed by 15 male semi-professional male soccer players. Considering the time it takes for recovery from an official or a simulated match, it appears that performance in a match is affected by a previous match if the interval between matches is short. However, the magnitude of the effects of multiple matches on muscle damage and performance have not been well documented.

Julian et al. [6] defined “fixture congestion” as a minimum of two successive official soccer matches, and examined the effects of an inter-match recovery period of ≤4 days on adult male players using a semi-automated video system and/or GPS device. They showed that fixture congestion affected variables such as the low- and moderate-intensity distance covered but did not affect the total distance covered, probably due to pacing strategies to maintain high-intensity movements. The authors suggested that with ever increasing numbers of competitive matches scheduled, more research was required using consistent measures of performance with an integration of physical, technical and tactical aspects. Although professional soccer leagues do not require their teams to play official matches over successive days, multiple soccer matches are played with short intervals in some tournaments [7,8]. A common challenge for players competing in these tournaments is that the time available for full recovery between matches is limited, thus physical performance might be reduced in successive matches, and risks of injuries may be increased.

Some studies have demonstrated that residual fatigue accumulated over three to four successive soccer matches and performance is adversely affected in junior and young male players [7,8,9,10,11]. Benítez-Jiménez et al. [8] reported that a significant decrease in CMJ height during three consecutive friendly soccer matches played daily over three days (match 1: −14%; match 2: −19%; match 3: −14%; two days after match 3: −15%), when compared to the baseline level in 22 youth male players. Similarly, Chaves et al. [7] showed a decrease in perceived recovery when the U−19 male players had four competitive matches in four days. Additionally, even if the match frequency was less, Saidi et al. [12] showed significant decreases in the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1 (YYIR1; −35%), repeated shuttle sprint ability (−3%), and squat jump (−3%) after 10 soccer matches played over six weeks by male soccer players. Carling et al. [13] suggested a need for research to examine the extent to which players’ match running profiles were compromised during intensified competition periods. It seems likely that as more matches are performed, the greater impairment of muscle and physical function is induced. However, no previous study has systematically investigated the effects of playing multiple soccer matches with short intervals on muscle damage and fatigue and performance of female players.

Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate changes in indirect markers of muscle damage and performance variables after multiple (three and six) simulated soccer matches (90-min LIST) performed by elite female university soccer players in comparisn to a single LIST condition. In the present study, the same players performed a LIST or three or six LISTs on consecutive days, and performance in the LIST, several indirect markers of muscle damage, and soccer-specific performance measures were taken before every LIST, one hour, and one to five days after the last LIST. The six LIST conditions were included as a possible worst-case scenario. It was hypothesized that the recovery and changes in muscle damage and performance variables would be slower and greater in the order of six LISTs, three LISTs, and the single LIST.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Approach and Study Design

In order to simulate soccer matches, a 90-min LIST protocol was used to mimic a typical soccer match [3,14,15]. In a pseudo-randomized, counterbalanced design, 12 elite female university soccer players played a single LIST, three LISTs and six LISTs, with more than 12 weeks between conditions (Figure 1A). The LISTs were performed in the same indoor facility in which the environmental temperature was 30–34 °C and relative humidity was 77–85% for all conditions. Six days before the first session, the participants were familiarized with all test procedures. They also performed a maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) test three to four days before the first session to calculate the speeds (55% and 95% VO2max) applied during the LIST. To examine the effects of the LISTs on muscle damage and performance, MVC-KE and maximal voluntary isometric contraction torque of knee flexors (MVC-KF), muscle soreness of the knee extensors (SOR-KE) and flexors (SOR-KF), plasma CK activity, CMJ, 30-m dash, 30-m timed hop, balance, agility t-test, 6 × 10-m shuttle run and YYIR1 were measured one to two days before the 1st LIST (baseline) and one hour after each LIST, and one to five days after the last LIST (Figure 1B). Changes in the variables were compared among the conditions (single LIST, three LISTs, six LISTs) by two-way repeated measures of analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Figure 1

Experimental design and testing procedures of the study. (A): Three conditions were based on the number of Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Tests (LISTs) performed consecutively by 12 participants: one (1LIST), three (3LISTs) and six (6LISTs). The order of the three conditions was semi-counterbalanced among the participants such that 1LIST–3 LISTs–6LISTs (n = 4), 3LISTs–6LISTs–1LIST (n = 4), and 6LISTs–1LIST–3LISTs (n = 4). (B): Time course of measurements for 1LIST, 3LISTs and 6LISTs conditions. FAM: familiarization session. V̇O2max: maximal oxygen consumption test. PM: physiological markers including heart rate, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and blood lactate concentration measures during the LIST. CD: total covered distance during the LIST. MD: muscle damage markers including maximal voluntary isometric contraction torque of the knee extensors (KEs) and flexors (KFs), muscle soreness of KEs and KFs, countermovement jump height, and plasma creatine kinase activity. p: performance parameters consisting of 30-m dash, 30-m timed hop, balance, agility t-test, 6 × 10-m shuttle run and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1 tests.

2.2. Participants

The sample size was estimated using the data from our pilot study in which the effects of a single LIST versus three LISTs over three days on maximal voluntary isometric contraction torque of the dominant knee extensors (MVC-KE) were compared in six female soccer players. Based on the effect size of 1 for a difference in MVC-KE change post-match between the two conditions, it was estimated that at least 11 participants were necessary for each condition, with an alpha level of 0.05 and power (1 − β) of 0.80 [16]. Considering a possible drop-out and an estimation error, 12 players were recruited for the study.

Twelve elite female university soccer players who were selected for the Chinese Taipei Team of the 2018 Asian University Football Tournament provided informed consents to participate in the present study, which had been approved by the Research Ethics Committee of National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan (Approval #: 201812HM023). The study was conducted in conformity with the policy statement regarding the use of human subjects by the Declaration of Helsinki. None of them had injuries during the period of the data collection and completed the three conditions. They played 17–20 official matches during the experimental period of 40 weeks and had training sessions five days a week (2.5–3 h per session). The present study was performed when the players had not had an official match for more than five days before the 1st LIST, and each condition (single, three and six LISTs) was preceded by at least five days of rest. All of the players had experienced three official matches in a row, and some of them had played an official match every day for five days.

2.3. Maximal Oxygen Uptake Test

The participants performed an incremental continuous run test on a treadmill (Mercury, h/p/cosmos, Nussdorf, Traunstein, Germany) until the point of volitional fatigue to determine maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and maximal heart rate (HRmax). An automatic gas analysis system (Vmax29c, SensorMedics, Yorba Linda, CA, USA) was used to measure oxygen consumption. Participants warmed up at a speed of 6.4 km/h on a gradient of 1% for 5 min, and the speed was increased by 1.6 km/h every 3 min while a gradient of 1% was kept [17,18,19,20]. From the VO2max, running speeds corresponding to 55% and 95% VO2max were calculated. Thereafter, the participants performed and practiced the running corresponding to 55% and 95% VO2max on the treadmill for 5 min for each intensity.

2.4. The Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST)

The LIST for 90 min was performed in a sports hall according to Nicholas et al. [15]. The details of the LIST can be found elsewhere [15], but briefly, the participants were instructed to run between two lines, 20 m apart, at various velocities dictated by an audio signal for two parts: Part A and Part B.

Part A was of a fixed duration and consisted of five 15-min exercise periods separated by 3 min of recovery. The exercise periods consisted of the set pattern of intermittent high-intensity running shown below and were designed to be similar to the activity pattern typically recorded for a soccer match-play.

3 × 20 m at walking pace;

1 × 20 m at maximal running speed;

4 s recovery;

3 × 20 m at a running speed corresponding to 55% of individual V̇O2max;

3 × 20 m at a running speed corresponding to 95% of individual VO2max.

Part B was an open-ended period of intermittent shuttle running, designed to exhaust the participants within approximately 10 min. The participants were required to run at speeds corresponding to 55% and 95% of predicted VO2max, the speed alternating every 20 m. This pattern of exercise was repeated continuously until the participants were unable to maintain the required speed for two consecutive shuttles at the higher of the two exercise intensities.

2.5. Familiarization Session

In the familiarization session, the participants experienced the measurements of muscle soreness, countermovement jump (CMJ), sub-maximal and maximal voluntary isometric contractions at 90° and 30° of knee flexion for knee extensors and flexors, respectively, on an isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex System S4 Pro; Biodex Medical Systems, Shirley, NY, USA), 30-m dash, 30-m timed hop, balance, agility t-test, 6 × 10-m shuttle run and YYIR1, and performed the LIST for 20 min (Figure 1).

2.6. Dependent Variables

Heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), blood lactate (LA) and distance covered during LIST.

During each LIST, heart rate (HR) was recorded by a Polar HR monitor (Polar M430, Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland); rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was assessed with a 6–20 Borg’s scale [17,21]; and covering distance of each participant in each LIST was recorded manually by the investigators. Blood lactate (LA) concentration was measured by a lactate test meter (LactateScout+, h/p/cosmos, Nussdorf-Traunstein, Germany) using a capillary sample obtained from a fingertip of each participant before and 1 min after every 15 min of exercise during Part A, and 1 min after Part B of the LIST [17,22,23]. Changes in HR during each LIST were analyzed by automatic software provided by the Polar company, and all results were averaged during each LIST [3,15]. RPE was assessed immediately after each exercise period as shown in the LIST section below, and the total of six exercise periods during each LIST was averaged as the final result [3,15]. The total six different time points of blood lactate during each LIST were averaged [15].

2.7. Muscle Damage Markers

2.7.1. Maximal Voluntary Isometric Contraction (MVC) Torque

MVC torque of the dominant knee extensors (MVC-KE) and flexors (MVC-KF) were adopted from our previous studies, and the details were described elsewhere [24,25,26,27]. The dominant leg was determined as the leg that was preferred for kicking a soccer ball to a target [28], and the measures were performed by the dominant leg. Each participant lay in supine and prone positions for the MVC-KE and MVC-KF measures on the platform of an isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex System S4, Shirley, NY, USA), respectively. The trunk and the dominant leg were strapped to the platform of the dynamometer. MVC-KE and MVC-KF were measured at 90° and 30° of knee flexion (0° = full knee extension), respectively, after gravity correction. Each participant was instructed to generate maximal force for 5 s, and this was repeated three times with 45 s rest between trials, and 5 min was provided between MVC-KE and MVC-KF measures, and the highest value of the three measurements was used for further analysis for each measure.

2.7.2. Countermovement Jump (CMJ)

CMJ was considered to be a marker of muscle damage, according to previous studies [29,30,31], although CMJ is also used as a performance measure in soccer studies [2,32]. The participant stood erect with a knee angle of 0° (0° = full knee extension) with hands on hips and performed a countermovement until the knee angle reached an approximate 90° angle, followed immediately by a vertical jump as high as possible [33,34,35]. CMJ was performed on a jumping mat (Smart Jump, Fusion Sport, Queensland, Australia). The jumps were interspersed with a 30-s rest period, and the best jump (in cm) among three trials was used as the test result.

2.7.3. Muscle Soreness

Muscle soreness was quantified by a visual analog scale that had a 100-mm continuous line with “not sore at all” on one end (0 mm) and “very, very sore” on the other end (100 mm). Muscle soreness of the dominant knee extensors and flexors was assessed, separately, when each participant performed a full squat of dominant knee extensors and flexors, respectively [18,19,36].

2.7.4. Plasma CK Activity

Approximately 5 mL of venous blood was withdrawn by a standard venipuncture technique from the cubital fossa region and centrifuged for 10 min to extract plasma, and the plasma samples were stored at −80 °C until analyses. Plasma CK activity was assayed spectrophotometrically by an automated clinical chemistry analyzer (Model 7080, Hitachi, Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) using a commercial test kit (Roche Diagnostics, Indianapolis, Indiana) [18,37].

2.8. Performance Indices

Before the tests, all the participants performed warm-up exercises consisting of jogging, specific mobility exercises and stretching routines, and three 10-m sprints in 10–15 min. All measures (30-m dash, 30-m timed hop, balance, agility t-test, 6 × 10-m shuttle run and YYIR1 tests) were performed indoors, and the order of measures was 30-m dash, balance, 30-m timed hop, agility t-test, 6 × 10-m shuttle run and YYIR1 tests with 5–10 min rest between tests. All participants had performed these tests regularly (eight times a year) for one year before the present study in a project by the Sport Administration, Ministry of Education (Taiwan); thus, they were familiar with the tests. However, performing all tests over consecutive days had not been done before the current study.

2.8.1. 30-m Dash

Sprint ability was assessed using telemetric photoelectric cells placed at 0, 10, 20 and 30 m (Smart Speed, Fusion Sport, Queensland, Australia). Each participant stood 0.3 m behind the starting line, started on a verbal signal being time-activated when the player crossed the first pair of photocells, and was instructed to run as fast as possible to complete the 30-m distance [32]. Participants completed two runs interspersed by a 1-min recovery period, and the best time was used for further analysis.

2.8.2. 30-m Timed Hop Test

The 30-m timed hop test was adapted from a previous study [38]. The 30-m timed hop test protocol was the same as that of the 30-m dash, but the difference was that the participants used their dominant leg to hop as fast as possible over a distance of 30 m. Participants completed two tests interspersed by a 2-min recovery period and the best time was used for further analysis.

2.8.3. Balance Test

The present study used a test of eyes closed on unstable surface (ECUS) as a measure of balance ability using the Biodex BioSway Portable Balance System (Model 950–460; Biodex Medical Systems, Shirley, NY, USA). Each participant was instructed to maintain her feet on the platform for 30 s for each test and had a 30-s rest between tests. Based on the study by Collado-Mateo et al. [39], a heel-to-heel distance of 16 cm and an external rotation of 15° were set. The sway index (SI) quantifying sways over the 30 s was calculated as the standard deviation (SD) of the sway angle [39]. Participants completed two tests interspersed by a 30-s recovery period, and the best result (i.e., SI) was used for further analysis.

2.8.4. Agility t-Test

An adapted version of the t-test by Semenick [40,41] was used. Each participant sprinted forward (9.14 m), shuffled to the left (4.57 m) and to the right (9.14 m), shuffled back to the left (4.57 m), and ran backward to the starting point. The time was measured by the same telemetric photoelectric cells as those for the 30-m dash. Two trials were performed with a 3-min rest between trials, and the better time was used for further analysis.

2.8.5. 6 × 10-m Shuttle Run

The 6 × 10-m shuttle run was carried out using the same telemetric photoelectric cells placed at the start line and 10 m. Each participant stood 0.3 m behind the start line, started on a verbal signal being time-activated when the participant crossed the first pair of photocells, and was instructed to run as fast as possible to complete the 10-m distance and then returned to the starting line for six repetitions. Players completed two runs interspersed by a 5-min recovery period, and the best time was used for further analysis.

2.8.6. Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (YYIR1)

Endurance was assessed through the YYIR1, commonly used to assess endurance performance in soccer players [42]. Keeping to a series of beeps, participants were required to run 20 m shuttles, followed by a 10-s rest interval. The test’s running speed increased progressively throughout until the players reached volitional exhaustion or until participants missed two beeps, resulting in the test being terminated. Participants completed one run on each time point, and consistent verbal encouragement was given to participants during the YYIR1. Total running distance, HR and RPE during the YYIR1 were recorded.

2.9. Statistical Analyses

Data were verified by a Shapiro–Wilk test for the normality and a Levene test for the homogeneity of variance assumption. All dependent variables before the single LIST condition, the 1st LIST of the three LIST and six LIST conditions were compared by one-way ANOVA. Changes in HR, RPE, lactate concentration, total distance covered during the LIST were compared among the trials and conditions by two-way repeated measures ANOVA. Changes in each dependent variable before, 1 h after, and 1–5 d after the 1st, 3rd and 6th LIST for the single LIST, three LIST and six LIST conditions, respectively, were compared by two-way repeated measures ANOVA.

The normalized changes in muscle damage and performance measures from the baseline at 1 h and 1–5 d after the 1st LIST for the single, three and six LIST conditions were obtained and were compared by two-way repeated measures ANOVA. When a significant interaction effect was found, a Tukey’s post-hoc test was performed, and η2 was calculated as a measure of effect size, which was considered as ~0.02 = small effect; ~0.13 = medium effect; and >0.26 = large effect [43]. Cohen’s d effect size (ES) was calculated by the method of Thalheimer and Cook [44] based on the largest changes for the single versus three, three versus six, and single versus six LIST conditions, respectively. ES of 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 were considered as a small, medium, and large effect, respectively [16]. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation coefficient (r) was used to examine the relationships between the magnitudes of decreases in MVC-KE, MVC-KF or CMJ (% change from the baseline) at 1 d after a single LIST, three LISTs and six LISTs (n = 36) and the magnitudes of change in peak muscle soreness of KE and KF as well as peak CK after a single LIST, three LISTs and six LISTs. Similarly, the correlation analyses were performed for the magnitude of the decreases in MVC-KE, MVC-KF or CMJ and the magnitude of changes in the 30-m dash, 30-m timed hop test, balance, agility t-test, 6 × 10 m shuttle run and YYIR1 at 1 d after the single LIST, three LISTs and six LISTs (n = 36). A significant level was set at p ≤ 0.05. The data were presented as mean ± SD.

3. Results

3.1. Baseline Measurements

The mean ± SD (range) age, height, body mass, percentage of body fat, and maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) of the participants were 21.0 ± 1.1 (19–23) y, 159.1 ± 4.6 (152–165) cm, 56.2 ± 6.7 (45–65) kg, 14.4 ± 4.3 (7.3–21.5)%, and 54.1 ± 4.4 (47.9–59.2) mL/kg/min, respectively. No significant differences in the baseline MVC-KE (p = 0.919, η2 = 0.008), MVC-KF (p = 0.959, η2 = 0.004), muscle soreness of KE (p = 1.00, η2 = 0.000) and KF (p = 1.00, η2 = 0.000), plasma CK activity (p = 0.562, η2 = 0.051), CMJ (p = 0.739, η2 = 0.027), 30-m dash (p = 0.943, η2 = 0.005), 30-m timed hop test (p = 0.992, η2 = 0.001), balance (p = 0.909, η2 = 0.009), agility t-test (p = 0.995, η2 = 0.001), 6 × 10-m shuttle run (p = 0.832, η2 = 0.017), and YYIR1 (average distance: p = 0.850, η2 = 0.015) were evident among the single LIST, three LIST and six LIST conditions (Figures 3 and 4). Before the 1st LIST, no significant differences among the conditions were found for HR (p = 0.907, η2 = 0.009), RPE (p = 0.426, η2 = 0.075), and LA concentration (p = 0.398, η2 = 0.080).

3.2. HR, RPE, LA and Distance Covered during LIST

No significant differences in the total distance covered (p = 0.951, η2 = 0.005), HR (p = 0.632, η2 = 0.041), RPE (p = 0.637, η2 = 0.040), and post-exercise LA (p = 0.866, η2 = 0.013) in the 1st LIST were found among the three conditions (Figure 2). Changes in average HR (p = 0.632, η2 = 0.041), RPE (p = 0.637, η2 = 0.040) and LA (p = 0.866, η2 = 0.013) during the 1st LIST were similar among the conditions (Figure 2b–d). The total distances covered during the LISTs were significantly shorter (p < 0.001) in the 2nd to 6th LISTs (10,088 ± 493 m–10,330 ± 628 m) for six LISTs (η2 = 0.418), and the 2nd (10,277 ± 220 m) and 3rd LISTs (9883 ± 339 m) for three LISTs (η2 = 0.580) when compared with the 1st LIST of all conditions (10,844 ± 528 m; Figure 2a).

Figure 2

Average changes (mean ± SD) in the total distance covered (a), heart rate (b), ratings of perceived exertion (RPE, (c)), and blood lactate concentration (LA, (d)) in the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST) for one LIST (Single), three LISTs (Three) and six LISTs (Six) conditions. An asterisk (*) indicates a significant difference (p < 0.05) between Single and Three conditions; a hash (#) indicates a significant difference (p < 0.05) between Single and Six conditions.

The baselines of LA (p = 0.012, η2 = 0.230; 2.3 ± 0.9–2.9 ± 0.8 mM/L), HR (p = 0.005, η2 = 0.255; 76.5 ± 6.1–78.3 ± 5.0 bpm), and RPE (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.546; 8.8 ± 2.0–10.3 ± 2.0) before the 2nd to 5th or 6th LIST of the six LISTs were significantly greater than those before the 1st LIST (LA: 1.9 ± 0.5 mM/L, HR: 72.8 ± 4.2 bpm, RPE: 6.8 ± 0.4). This was also the case for the baselines of LA (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.571; 2.8 ± 1.0–3.3 ± 1.4 mM/L), HR (p = 0.009, η2 = 0.347; 75.0 ± 2.8–77.9 ± 7.9 bpm) and RPE (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.811; 9.4 ± 1.3–10.6 ± 2.2) before the 2nd and 3rd LISTs of the three and six LISTs when compared with the 1st LIST (LA: 1.9 ± 0.5 mM/L, HR: 81.8 ± 3.8 bpm, RPE: 7.3 ± 0.8).

3.3. Changes in Muscle Damage Markers

Figure 3 shows changes in muscle damage parameters before the 1st LIST, 1 h (Day 1) after the single LIST, 1 h after each LIST for the three LISTs (Day 1–3) and six LISTs (Day 1–6), and 1–5 d after the single LIST (Day 2–6), three LISTs (Day 4–8) and six LISTs (Day 7–11). The magnitude of decrease in MVC-KE and MVC-KF at 1 h after the LIST was greater (p < 0.001) after six LISTs (KE: η2 = 0.964; KF: η2 = 0.853) and three LISTs (KE: η2 = 0.724; KF: η2 = 0.633) than a single LIST, and the decreases were greater (p < 0.01) after six LISTs than three LISTs (KE: η2 = 0.712; KF: η2 = 0.625). The recovery of MVC-KE and MVC-KF was slower (p < 0.01) after six LISTs (interaction effect: KE: η2 = 0.831; KF: η2 = 0.722) and three LISTs (KE: η2 = 0.552; KF: η2 = 0.243) than a single LIST, and after six LISTs than three LISTs (KE: η2 = 0.552; η2 = 0.287).

Figure 3

Changes (mean ± SD) in maximal voluntary isometric contraction torque of the knee extensors (MVC-KE, (a)) and flexors (MVC-KF, (b)), muscle soreness assessed by a 100-mm visual analog scale of the KE (c) and KF (d), countermovement jump height (CMJ, (e)), and plasma creatine kinase (CK) activity (f) at baseline (0), 1 h after the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST) (Day 1), and 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 d (Day 2–6) after the LIST (Single), before the 1st LIST (0), 1 h after each LIST performed 3 d in a row (Day 1–3) and 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 d (Day 4–8) after the 3rd LIST (Three), and before the 1st LIST (0), 1 h after each LIST performed 6 d in a row (Day 1–6) and 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 d (Day 7–11) after the 6th LIST (Six). * indicates a significant (p < 0.05) difference between groups based on the interaction effect shown by the ANOVA. # indicates a significant (p < 0.05) difference from the baseline value.

The magnitude of decrease in CMJ height was greater after six LISTs (p = 0.001, η2 = 0.641) than a single LIST, and the decreases were greater after six LISTs than three LISTs (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.699) without differences between three LISTs and a single LIST (p = 0.238, η2 = 0.124). The recovery of CMJ height was slower (p < 0.001) after six LISTs (η2 = 0.748) and three LISTs (η2 = 0.346) than a single LIST, and after six LISTs than three LISTs (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.517).

Muscle soreness of KE and KF after six LISTs (KE: p < 0.001, η2 = 0.400; KF: p < 0.001, η2 = 0.479) and three LISTs (KE: p = 0.022, η2 = 0.208; KF: p = 0.026, η2 = 0.202) was significantly greater than that after a single LIST, and after six LISTs than three LISTs (KE: p = 0.012, η2 = 0.228; KF: p = 0.016, η2 = 0.219). The extent of increases in plasma CK activity after six LISTs (η2 = 0.738) and three LISTs (η2 = 0.745) was significantly greater (p < 0.001) than that after a single LIST, and the increases were greater after six LISTs than three LISTs (p < 0.001, η2 = 0.721).

3.4. Changes in Performance Indices

As shown in Figure 4, the extent of changes in the 30-m dash (interaction effect; six LISTs: η2 = 0.735; three LISTs: η2 = 0.511), 30-m timed hop (six LISTs: η2 = 0.828; three LISTs: η2 = 0.382), balance (six LISTs: η2 = 0.957; three LISTs: η2 = 0.624), agility t-test (six LISTs: η2 = 0.748; three LISTs: η2 = 0.532), 6 × 10-m shuttle run (six LISTs: η2 = 0.731; three LISTs: η2 = 0.532), and YYIR1 (six LISTs: η2 = 0.696; three LISTs: η2 = 0.478) after six LISTs and three LISTs were significantly greater (p < 0.001) than that after single LIST, and the changes were greater (p < 0.001) after six LISTs than three LISTs (e.g., 30-m: η2 = 0.735; 30-m timed hop: η2 = 0.553; balance: η2 = 0.969; agility t-test: η2 = 0.517; 6 × 10-m shuttle run: η2 = 0.429; YYIR1: η2 = 0.445).

Figure 4

Changes (mean ± SD) in 30-m dash (a), 30-m timed hop test (b), balance with eyes closed on unstable surface (Balance, (c)), agility t-test (d), 6 × 10-m shuttle run (e), and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1 (Yo-Yo IR1; (f)) at baseline (0), 1 h after the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST) (Day 1), and 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 d (Day 2–6) after the LIST (Single), before the 1st LIST (0), 1 h after each LIST performed 3 d in a row (Day 1–3) and 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 d (Day 4–8) after the 3rd LIST (Three), and before the 1st LIST (0), 1 h after each LIST performed 6 d in a row (Day 1–6) and 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 d (Day 7–11) after the 6th LIST (Six). * indicates a significant (p < 0.05) difference between groups based on the interaction effect shown by the ANOVA. # indicates a significant (p < 0.05) difference from the baseline value.

Table 1 shows normalized changes in muscle damage markers relating to muscle function (MVC-KE, MVC-KF, CMJ) and all performance measures from the baseline at 1 h and 1–5 d (D1–D5) after the 1st LIST for the single, three and six LIST conditions, and summary of the statistical analysis results. It should be noted that the 2nd and 3rd LISTs were performed in the three LIST condition on D2 and D3, and the 2nd to 5th LISTs were performed on D2–D5 for the six LIST condition. A significant condition x time interaction effect was found for all variables, and performing additional LISTs made all variables worse. No indication of recovery was found for the six LIST condition in the time frame. It should be noted that the magnitude of decrease in performance varied among the variables, and relatively larger changes were observed for MVC-KE and MVC-KF torque and YYIR1.

Table 1

Comparison among the single, three, and six Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST) conditions for changes (mean ± SD) in maximal voluntary isometric contraction torque of the knee extensors (MVC-KE) and flexors (MVC-KF), countermovement jump height (CMJ), 30-m dash (30-mD), 30-m timed hop (30-mTH), balance, agility t-test (t-test), 6 × 10-m shuttle run (SR) and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery level 1 (YYIR1) from baseline at 1 h (H1) and 1–5 d after the 1st LIST (D1–D5).

Measure	Condition	H1	D1	D2	D3	D4	D5	ANOVA Results, Eta Square (η2)	ES
MVC-KE(%)	Single	−14.2 ± 4.4	−15.0 ± 5.9	−11.0 ± 5.7	−7.6 ± 5.3	−2.9 ± 4.0	1.3 ± 2.0	C: F = 73.72, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.870	1.982
	Three	−13.3 ± 3.4	−20.3 ± 3.6 *	−25.4 ± 4.5 *	−25.3 ± 6.6 *	−21.0 ± 9.0 *	−15.9 ± 9.7 *	T: F = 17.28, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.611	1.700
	Six	−16.7 ± 4.7	−25.2 ± 7.4 *	−30.0 ± 8.8 *#	−34.1 ± 9.8 *#	−35.3 ± 6.9 *#	−33.7 ± 8.9 *#	C × T: F = 30.80, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.737	3.162
MVC-KF(%)	Single	−19.0 ± 3.5	−19.7 ± 4.3	−15.7 ± 5.1	−12.8 ± 5.2	−9.0 ± 4.0	−3.3 ± 2.6	C: F = 23.57, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.682	1.844
	Three	−16.4 ± 2.8	−22.6 ± 3.8 *	−28.7 ± 5.4 *	−27.7 ± 4.7 *	−24.9 ± 11.1 *	−21.1 ± 14.1 *	T: F = 14.78, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.573	1.235
	Six	−16.2 ± 6.4	−24.9 ± 10.3	−33.7 ± 12.9 *	−38.5 ± 16.5 *#	−41.0 ± 17.3 *#	−43.2 ± 15.7 *#	C × T: F = 46.31, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.808	2.042
CMJ(%)	Single	−6.6 ± 6.7	−5.7 ± 2.9	−4.0 ± 2.7	−2.1 ± 2.7	−0.8 ± 2.2	0.9 ± 1.5	C: F = 7.52, p = 0.003, η2 = 0.406	0.744
	Three	−6.5 ± 5.4	−8.9 ± 7.0	−9.7 ± 4.8 *	−10.4 ± 2.7 *	−8.1 ± 4.3 *	−6.1 ± 4.5 *	T: F = 5.75, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.343	4.370
	Six	−7.0 ± 9.3	−13.5 ± 15.4 *	−18.0 ± 18.0 *#	−22.2 ± 25.0 *#	−22.0 ± 24.5 *#	−19.6 ± 11.7 *#	C × T: F = 7.99, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.421	3.054
30-mD(%)	Single	2.5 ± 2.3	3.1 ± 2.0	1.9 ± 2.1	0.7 ± 1.4	0.2 ± 1.3	0.0 ± 0.7	C: F = 31.02, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.738	1.786
	Three	3.1 ± 1.9	4.8 ± 1.9 *	5.1 ± 2.2 *	5.9 ± 1.4 *	3.8 ± 1.3 *	2.8 ± 1.4 *	T: F = 13.94, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.559	1.039
	Six	2.9 ± 3.3	4.9 ± 3.5	6.9 ± 3.7 *	7.9 ± 3.0 *#	8.2 ± 2.8 *#	8.2 ± 3.1 *#	C × T: F = 15.83, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.590	2.225
30-mTH(%)	Single	7.7 ± 5.0	6.1 ± 3.4	4.9 ± 3.9	2.7 ± 4.7	1.8 ± 4.6	0.3 ± 3.5	C: F = 21.12, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.657	0.563
	Three	6.7 ± 4.6	7.4 ± 3.2 *	9.7 ± 3.5 *	10.0 ± 2.9 *	8.2 ± 3.6 *	5.9 ± 2.8 *	T: F = 3.44, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.238	2.215
	Six	7.7 ±1.6	8.0 ± 1.9 *	10.3 ± 1.3 *	11.7 ± 1.7 *#	13.7 ± 3.0 *#	16.1 ± 2.6 *#	C × T: F = 45.20, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.804	2.108
Balance(%)	Single	6.1 ± 2.4	6.7 ± 1.3	5.7 ± 1.8	4.1 ± 2.3	2.6 ± 2.1	0.7 ± 1.3	C: F = 118.08, p < 0.0, η2 = 0.915	4.095
	Three	6.6 ± 2.9	10.2 ± 3.2 *	14.1 ± 2.2 *	13.2 ± 2.4 *	10.2 ± 3.3 *	7.1 ± 2.7 *	T: F = 135.44, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.925	2.710
	Six	6.7 ± 4.3	10.6 ± 3.2 *#	15.9 ± 3.9 *#	20.1 ± 3.7 *#	20.6 ± 3.2 *#	21.7 ± 3.3 *#	C × T: F = 84.13, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.884	5.981
t-test(%)	Single	2.2 ± 1.5	3.3 ± 1.2	1.9 ± 1.0	1.8 ± 1.5	0.9 ± 0.8	0.6 ± 0.8	C: F = 15.15, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.579	1.995
	Three	2.1 ± 2.2	3.7 ± 2.5	4.6 ± 2.3 *	6.4 ± 1.9 *	4.8 ± 2.0 *	4.8 ± 2.4 *	T: F = 16.89, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.606	1.719
	Six	2.2 ± 3.1	3.7 ± 4.3	4.3 ± 3.1 *	6.7 ± 2.9 *	7.4 ± 2.3 *#	9.3 ± 1.5 *#	C × T: F = 18.576, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.628	4.631
SR(%)	Single	2.0 ± 0.9	2.5 ± 0.8	2.0 ± 1.0	1.1 ± 0.9	0.5 ± 0.7	−0.1 ± 0.6	C: F = 23.67, p < 0.001, η2 = 0. 683	2.319
	Three	1.8 ± 1.7	3.6 ± 1.2 *	4.2 ± 2.0 *	4.6 ± 1.0 *	3.6 ± 1.6 *	2.9 ± 1.4 *	T: F = 16.34, p < 0.001, η2 = 0. 598	1.186
	Six	1.7 ± 2.0	3.3 ± 3.0	3.9 ± 2.1 *	5.0 ± 2.1 *	5.9 ± 1.6 *#	6.4 ± 1.9 *#	C × T: F = 24.60, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.691	2.675
YYIR1(%)	Single	−9.9 ± 2.6	−11.9 ± 3.7	−9.5 ± 5.7	−3.0 ± 4.4	−0.4 ± 4.7	1.8 ± 4.6	C: F = 37.01, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.771	1.419
	Three	−15.9 ± 12.0	−33.1 ± 20.8 *	−27.5 ± 11.0 *	−23.5 ± 6.8 *	−18.1 ± 6.2 *	−10.5 ± 6.8 *	T: F = 14.84, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.574	0.758
	Six	−11.7 ± 6.6	−26.7 ±10.5 *	−38.3 ± 17.0 *#	−45.1 ± 19.7 *#	−47.6 ± 17.3 *#	−41.4 ± 9.0 *#	C × T: F = 21.62, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.663	2.854

In the second to last column, the two-way ANOVA results (C: condition effect, T: time effect, C × T: condition x time interaction effect; F- and p-values) and eta square (η2) are shown. In the last column, Cohen’s d effect size (ES), based on the largest changes (indicated in bold), is shown for the Single versus Three, Three versus Six, and Single versus Six conditions, respectively. *: significantly different from the Single condition, #: significantly different from the Three condition.

3.5. Correlations between Changes in Muscle Damage and Performance Markers

Significant (p < 0.001) correlations were evident between the magnitude of decrease in MVC-KE torque at 1 d after a single LIST, three LISTs and six LISTs; CMJ height at 1 d after a single LIST, three LISTs and six LISTs (r = 0.907); peak muscle soreness of KE (r = −0.606) and KF (r = −0.762) as well as peak CK activity (r = −0.875). Significant (p < 0.001) correlations were also evident between MVC-KF torque and CMJ height (r = 0.880), peak muscle soreness of KE (r = −0.653) and KF (r = −0.873) and peak CK activity (r = −0.849). Peak CK activity was also correlated (p < 0.001) with peak soreness of KE (r = 0.708) and KF (r = 0.838).

The magnitude of changes in the measures at 1 d after the last LIST (average of single LIST, three LIST and six LIST conditions) varied (p < 0.005) among MVC-KE (−19 ± 7%), MVC-KF (−22 ± 7%), CMJ (−10 ± 5%), balance (16 ± 8%), 30-m dash (6 ± 3%), 30-m timed hop (12 ± 6%), agility t-test (7 ± 4%), 6 × 10-m shuttle run (5 ± 2%) and YYIR1 (−18 ± 8%). As shown in Figure 4, the normalized changes in MVC-KE torque at 1 d after a single LIST, three LISTs and six LISTs (n = 36) were correlated (p < 0.001) with the changes in 30-m dash (r = −0.762), 30-m timed hop (r = −0.793), balance (r = −0.793), agility t-test (r = −0.821), 6 × 10-m shuttle run (r = −0.822), and YYIR1 (r = 0.806) at 1 d after a single LIST, three LISTs and six LISTs. This was also the case for the normalized changes in MVC-KF and 30-m dash (r = −0.854), 30-m timed hop (r = −0.795), balance (r = −0.799), agility t-test (r = −0.831), 6 × 10-m shuttle run (r = −0.882) and YYIR1 (r = 0.891). The normalized changes in CMJ at 1 d after a single LIST, three LISTs and six LISTs (n = 36) were also correlated (p < 0.001) with the changes in 30-m dash (r = −0.770), 30-m timed hop (r = −0.803), balance (r = −0.836), agility t-test (r = −0.851), 6 × 10-m shuttle run (r = −0.889), and YYIR1 (r = 0.886) at 1 d after a single LIST, three LISTs and six LISTs (Figure 5).

Figure 5

Correlations between the magnitude of normalized changes (% pre) in maximal voluntary isometric contraction torque of knee extensors (MVC-KE) or countermovement jump (CMJ) at 1 d after one Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST) and the normalized changes in 30-m dash (MVC-KE: (a), CMJ: (g)), 30-m timed hop test (MVC-KE: (b), CMJ: (h)), balance with eyes closed under unstable surface (MVC-KE: (c), CMJ: (i)), agility t-test (MVC-KE: (d), CMJ: (j)), 6 × 10-m shuttle run (MVC-KE: (e), CMJ: (k)) and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test level 1 (MVC-KE: (f), CMJ: (l)) at 1 d after LIST with one, three, and six LIST groups combined (n = 36). For each figure, r value based on Pearson correlation coefficient and its significance, and a regression line are included.

4. Discussion

The results of the present study revealed that the distance covered in the 2nd–6th LISTs was shorter than that in the single or 1st LIST (Figure 2), and the multiple LISTs induced greater changes in muscle damage and performance markers than the single LIST (Figure 3 and Figure 4, Table 1). Additionally, the magnitude of the changes in muscle damage markers significantly correlated with the magnitude of the changes in performance parameters (Figure 5). These results support the hypothesis and suggest that playing multiple soccer matches on consecutive days accumulates fatigue and muscle damage, impairing the performance of well-trained female soccer players.

The level of the female players used in the present study was considered to be high, since their physiological characteristics (e.g., VO2max: 54.1 ± 4.4 mL/kg/min, MVC-KE torque: 158 ± 18 Nm, CMJ height: 38.6 ± 2.7 cm, YYIR1: 1460 ± 244 m) were similar to those of North European elite female players reported in the previous studies [1,45]. Previous studies also used the LIST to simulate a 90-min soccer match-play and reported that the total distance covered in the 90-min LIST was similar to that of official 90-min soccer matches by male (10,000–12,000 m) [15,46] or female players at the local Premier Division standard or higher, with three National representatives in New Zealand (10,800 m) [47]. In the present study, the total distance covered in the 1st LIST from the three conditions was 9240–11,620 m (average: 10,844 ± 528 m), which was also similar to the level of elite female players.

As shown in Figure 2a, the distance covered in a LIST was 5–10% shorter in the 2nd and 3rd, or 2nd–6th LISTs than in the 1st LIST. This was in line with the findings of a previous study [9] reporting that the covered distance during the 3rd (8331 ± 370 m, −8.5%) and 4th matches (8227 ± 339 m, −9.6%) of junior male players was significantly shorter than that in the 1st match (9102 ± 620 m) in a 4-d (one match per day) soccer tournament. These results suggest that players do not fully recover from a previous match and their performance is reduced when the subsequent match is held on the next day. It should be noted that not only the LIST but also many other performance measures were performed every day in the three and six LIST conditions. Thus, these measures might have affected the LIST performance and recovery, although all participants were familiar with the tests. It has been reported that plasma CK and lactate dehydrogenase activities increase after a YYIR1 [48,49]; however, no previous studies have examined the effects of the other tests on muscle damage and performance measures. The effects of the multiple performance measures on LIST performance should be investigated in a future study.

Significant changes in muscle damage and performance markers were observed after the single LIST, and none of the measures returned to the baseline levels until 4–5 d post-LIST (Figure 3 and Figure 4, Table 1). Previous studies also showed that 3–7 d were required for muscle damage and performance measures to return to the baseline values after an official match [4,50,51,52], a friendly match [1] or a simulated match [3] performed by well-trained players. Silva et al. [5] showed in their review paper that hamstring force production capacity (ES = −0.7), physical performance such as CMJ (ES = −0.4 to −0.6), t-test (ES = −0.4 to 0.5), and linear sprint time (ES = 0.4 to 0.6), CK activity in the blood (ES = 0.4), well-being (fatigue: ES = 0.3–0.9; sleep: ES = 0.2–0.3; stress: ES = 0.2–0.3) and muscle soreness (ES = 0.6–1.3) remained substantially impaired at 3 d after an official soccer match. When compared to simulation protocols, a match format (11 versus 11 players) induced greater increases in CK activity in the blood (ES = 1.8 versus 0.7), IL−6 (ES = 2.6 versus 1.1), monocytes (ES = 1.71 versus 0.95) and neutrophil counts (ES = 2.06 versus 1.04) and muscle soreness (ES = 1.5 versus 0.7). The authors concluded that a period of 3 d post-match-play would not be long enough to completely restore homeostatic balance, and the recovery period post-soccer match was not a “one size fits all” situation [5]. To the best of our knowledge, only one study investigated female players. Hughes et al. [4] found that muscle soreness and increased plasma CK activity lasted for 7 d after an official soccer match of elite female youth players. Regarding male players, Thomas et al. [3] reported that decreased MVC-KE torque and CMJ height, and increased muscle soreness and plasma CK activity were still evident at 3 d after a 90-min LIST performed by 15 semi-professional soccer players. They also reported 2% reduction in voluntary activation, and 5% decrease in quadriceps potentiated twitch force at 2 d post-LIST. In the present study, the time course of changes in muscle damage and performance parameters varied, but most of the parameters did not return to the baseline values at 4 d after a single LIST (Figure 3 and Figure 4, Table 1). It seems reasonable to assume that the responses of the female players to the single LIST shown in the present study were comparable to those of an official soccer match. It is possible that the time course of recovery is influenced by the severity of a match; characteristics of the players such as age, fitness level, gender, and experience; and other factors such as environmental temperature and humidity [2,6]. However, it seems unlikely that even elite female players can fully recover within 3 d after an official match.

Silva et al. [5] stated that match congestion in elite soccer induces residual fatigue and underperformance due to insufficient recovery time. Using time–motion analyses, a couple of studies reported that running performance represented by distances covered was unaffected by match congestion [6,13]. Carling et al. [13] recommended analyses of movement variables including accelerations, decelerations and turns that were more metabolically taxing. Thus, the total distance covered may not be the best indicator of performance. To the best of our knowledge, the present study was the first to examine the effects of three and six LISTs played on consecutive days on muscle damage and performance parameters, and show that multiple matches performed every day negatively affect performance in the LIST, increase muscle damage, and impair performance test results of female soccer players. The changes in muscle damage and performance markers after three LISTs and six LISTs were greater than those after a single LIST (Table 1), and most of the measures did not return to the baseline values even at 5 d after the last LIST (Figure 3 and Figure 4). When the multiple LISTs were performed, it appeared that muscle damage was accumulated and performance got worse (Table 1). As shown in Figure 4, the extent of decreases in performance measures following the last LIST of three LISTs was significantly greater than that after a single LIST, and that following six LISTs was significantly greater than that after three LISTs. It seems that the more multiple soccer matches are performed, the greater the magnitude of muscle damage. However, it should be noted that the magnitude of muscle damage after six LISTs was not six times greater than that after a single LIST. For example, the magnitude of maximal decrease in MVC-KE torque at 1 d after a single LIST, three LISTs and six LISTs was 13%, 20% and 25%, respectively, and the magnitude of decrease in YYIR1 at 1 d after a single LIST, three LISTs and six LISTs was 11%, 19%, and 26%, respectively. It is important to note that the recovery rate of the variables after the last LIST was not largely different among the single LIST, three LISTs and six LISTs. This suggests that the magnitude of muscle damage was attenuated over multiple LISTs due to the repeated bout effect, and the recovery ability was not impaired by multiple LISTs for the well-trained players.

Although it is rare or unlikely that professional soccer players are involved in several official matches in a row, it is possible that players have three [8] or four matches [7,9,10] in a row, in school soccer competitions. The players in the present study had experienced three official matches over three days, and some had played five matches over five days. Although playing six matches in six days is rare in an official soccer tournament, Moreira et al. [11] reported that a congested match schedule such as seven matches played in seven days decreased testosterone concentration in elite Brazilian youth male players and negatively affected their mucosal immunity and impaired the capacity to perform certain technical actions such as tackles, interceptions, and passes. Since the present study used elite female university soccer players, it is not known how higher levels of players, including male professional players, would respond to multiple matches in fixture congestion periods. However, it seems likely that if teams are required to play matches on consecutive days, the time for recovery of players between matches is limited, their physical performance in a subsequent match could be impaired, and fatigue and injury risks would increase [8,11].

In the present study, 1 h after three LISTs, the 30-m dash (−5%), 30-m timed hop (−11%), balance (−16%), agility t-test (−5%), 6 × 10-m shuttle run (−4%), and YYIR1 (−19%) all decreased. The magnitude of the decrease in some of the variables appeared to be greater in the present study when compared with that of the previous study [12]. It should be noted that YYIR1 showed the largest decrease (average: −35%) among the performance parameters in the study of Saidi et al. [12]. As shown in Figure 2, the total distance covered in the 2nd to 3rd LISTs in the three LIST condition was 5–9% shorter when compared with the 1st LIST of the three LIST condition, but this was much smaller than the decrease in YYIR1 (Figure 4, Table 1). It should be noted that YYIR1 consists of repeated accelerations, decelerations and changes of direction, which require eccentric contractions. In the present study, no eccentric contraction strength measures were included. It may be that decreases in eccentric contraction strength affected YY1R1 greater than the LIST. This would suggest that the YYIR1 test may be a sensitive marker of soccer performance.

As shown in Figure 5, significant correlations were found between the normalized changes in MVC-KE torque and all performance measures, and this was also the case for the normalized changes in MVC-KF torque. Thus, it seems likely that the decreases in the performance measures were associated with the decreases in KE and KF muscle strength. It is important to note that the normalized changes in CMJ height also significantly correlated with the changes in all performance measures, and the r values were not largely different from those of MVC-KE torque (Figure 5). This may suggest that CMJ height can be used to assess muscle damage and its effects on physical performance in a field, when MVC torque measures are not possible.

The mechanisms underpinning the greater extent of muscle damage and impaired performance measures following multiple LISTs were not investigated in the present study. As discussed above, a single soccer match leads to acute fatigue and muscle damage characterized by a prolonged decline in maximal muscle strength and muscle soreness, which could require at least three days to fully recover (Figure 3, Table 1). Thus, if the next soccer match is performed within three days, it seems likely that players have less fitness when compared with the first match [7,9,10], thus the second match requires more effort than the first match because of the reduced muscle function. This could lead to additional fatigue and muscle damage, thus impairing the performance of the players further [6]. It seems possible that repeatedly performing eccentric actions such as changes in direction, stopping, and decelerations with weaker muscles induces more mechanical stimuli especially to lower limb muscles during a subsequent soccer match [53,54]. It is also possible that recovery of muscle glycogen, dehydration, and mental fatigue would be incomplete, if the recovery time is not long enough [2,6]. This may also exacerbate muscle damage and retard recovery. Thus, strategies for minimizing cumulative fatigue and improving recovery from muscle damage are necessary. Since eccentric muscle actions of leg muscles are performed frequently in a soccer match-play [2,55], and muscle damage is induced by unaccustomed eccentric contractions [53,56], it seems possible that regular eccentric resistance training will attenuate muscle damage [57]. Performing eccentric resistance exercise training may reduce muscle damage and attenuate performance decrement in multiple matches over days in a soccer tournament. However, this hypothesis is need to be explored further.

There are several limitations in the present study. Firstly, the participants of the study were female university soccer players, thus the results of the study may not reflect male, youth and professional players. Secondly, the changes in ovarian hormone status of these female players during the study were not recorded, and the possible effects of the hormones on the outcome measures were not controlled. Thirdly, the LIST does not include kicking a ball, tackles, maximal jumps, changes of directions, and direct contacts with opposing players, and the LIST was performed on the wooden floor of an indoor sport hall in the present study. Thus, this may be different from actual matches played on a grass pitch. Fourthly, previous studies showed that aerobic performance measurements such as YYIR1 affected the recovery of other tests such as short-sprint tests (e.g., 30-m dash) after a soccer match [2,58]. In the present study, no measurements were taken immediately after the LIST and between one and 24 h after the LIST, but many measurements (e.g., 6 × 10-m shuttle running, YYIR1) were taken daily together with the LIST, which may have affected the recovery from the LIST. In the present study, a control group with players experiencing muscle damage and performance measures without performing any LIST was not included. Thus, the effects of measurements on the variables are not known. Fifthly, all participants performed single, three and six LISTs at least 12-week intervals using a semi-counterbalance fashion, but this could potentially result in the repeated bout effect [56]. Although the order of the three conditions was pseudo-randomized among the participants and the time between the conditions was more than 12 weeks, it may be that the players who had the six LIST condition first (n = 4) might have had more difficulty than those who had a single LIST (n = 4) or three LIST condition (n = 4) first. Sixthly, the present study did not assess the effects of muscle damage on skill performance, which is assumed to be affected and influence a game performance. Furthermore, previous studies [59,60] reported that a hot and humid environment impaired the performance of soccer players. In the present study, the LIST was performed in an indoor facility without air-conditioning with the environmental temperature being 30–34 °C and relative humidity being 77–85%. However, it should be noted that the participants of the present study were used to the environment, since they trained and played matches in similar conditions year round in Taiwan. Lastly, the present study was rather descriptive, and a mechanistic approach to investigate the factors affecting muscle damage and performance was absent. Future studies are warranted to consider these limitations and examine inflammatory responses (e.g., cytokines), changes in central (e.g., transcranial magnetic stimulation) and peripheral (e.g., surface electromyography) neuromuscular parameters, and glycogen and other substances in muscles.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, multiple LISTs resulted in greater muscle damage and impaired performance than a single LIST, and the extent of muscle damage was associated with the extent of decline in performance measures. The findings of the present study suggest that playing multiple soccer matches can impair the performance of elite female players; thus strategies to minimize muscle damage and enhance recovery are important for the players to perform better in a tournament.