Prediction modeling of potentially toxic elements' hydrogeopollution using an integrated Q-mode HCs and ANNs machine learning approach in SE Nigeria.

Machine learning techniques have proven to be very useful in environmental and engineering assessments, including water quality studies. This is because they have flexible linear and nonlinear forecasting functions that can efficiently and reliably estimate measurable and continuous variables. The aim of this paper was to classify the water quality and also predict potentially toxic anions (PTAs; e.g., Cl, SO4, HCO3, and NO3) and potentially toxic heavy metals (PTHMs; e.g., Fe, Zn, Ni, Cr, and Pb) in water resources in Ojoto and its surroundings, Nigeria. Q-mode hierarchical clusters (HCs) and artificial neural networks (ANNs) were integrated to achieve the research objectives. Prior to the HCs and ANNs modeling, correlation-, unrotated principal component-, and varimax-rotated factor analyses were performed to flag the level of associations between the input water quality variables. With respect to pH, two water quality cluster groups were identified. However, three and four cluster groups were identified based on the PTAs and PTHMs concentrations, respectively. Four ANN models (two for each group) were used for predicting the PTAs and PTHMs in the waters resources. Using coefficient of determination (R2) and AUC (area under curve) values and direct comparison of parity plots, the performance and accuracy of the ANN models were substantiated. Overall, the results obtained reveal that the proposed ANN models suitably predicted the concentrations of the PTAs and PTHMs. Thus, this paper provides useful information for better monitoring, management, and protection of the water resources. However, more modeling studies are encouraged to validate and/or improve the findings of the current work.