Clemens Neudorfer1, Clement T Chow1, Alexandre Boutet1, Aaron Loh1, Jürgen Germann1, Gavin Jb Elias1, William D Hutchison2, Andres M Lozano3. 1. Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Toronto Western Hospital, University of Toronto, Canada. 2. Krembil Research Institute, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Department of Physiology, Toronto Western Hospital and University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 3. Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Toronto Western Hospital, University of Toronto, Canada; Krembil Research Institute, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Electronic address: lozano@uhnresearch.ca.
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Electrical stimulation in the kilohertz-frequency range has gained interest in the field of neuroscience. The mechanisms underlying stimulation in this frequency range, however, are poorly characterized to date. OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS: To summarize the manifold biological effects elicited by kilohertz-frequency stimulation in the context of the currently existing literature and provide a mechanistic framework for the neural responses observed in this frequency range. METHODS: A comprehensive search of the peer-reviewed literature was conducted across electronic databases. Relevant computational, clinical, and mechanistic studies were selected for review. RESULTS: The effects of kilohertz-frequency stimulation on neural tissue are diverse and yield effects that are distinct from conventional stimulation. Broadly, these can be divided into 1) subthreshold, 2) suprathreshold, 3) synaptic and 4) thermal effects. While facilitation is the dominating mechanism at the subthreshold level, desynchronization, spike-rate adaptation, conduction block, and non-monotonic activation can be observed during suprathreshold kilohertz-frequency stimulation. At the synaptic level, kilohertz-frequency stimulation has been associated with the transient depletion of the available neurotransmitter pool - also known as synaptic fatigue. Finally, thermal effects associated with extrinsic (environmental) and intrinsic (associated with kilohertz-frequency stimulation) temperature changes have been suggested to alter the neural response to stimulation paradigms. CONCLUSION: The diverse spectrum of neural responses to stimulation in the kilohertz-frequency range is distinct from that associated with conventional stimulation. This offers the potential for new therapeutic avenues across stimulation modalities. However, stimulation in the kilohertz-frequency range is associated with distinct challenges and caveats that need to be considered in experimental paradigms.
BACKGROUND: Electrical stimulation in the kilohertz-frequency range has gained interest in the field of neuroscience. The mechanisms underlying stimulation in this frequency range, however, are poorly characterized to date. OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS: To summarize the manifold biological effects elicited by kilohertz-frequency stimulation in the context of the currently existing literature and provide a mechanistic framework for the neural responses observed in this frequency range. METHODS: A comprehensive search of the peer-reviewed literature was conducted across electronic databases. Relevant computational, clinical, and mechanistic studies were selected for review. RESULTS: The effects of kilohertz-frequency stimulation on neural tissue are diverse and yield effects that are distinct from conventional stimulation. Broadly, these can be divided into 1) subthreshold, 2) suprathreshold, 3) synaptic and 4) thermal effects. While facilitation is the dominating mechanism at the subthreshold level, desynchronization, spike-rate adaptation, conduction block, and non-monotonic activation can be observed during suprathreshold kilohertz-frequency stimulation. At the synaptic level, kilohertz-frequency stimulation has been associated with the transient depletion of the available neurotransmitter pool - also known as synaptic fatigue. Finally, thermal effects associated with extrinsic (environmental) and intrinsic (associated with kilohertz-frequency stimulation) temperature changes have been suggested to alter the neural response to stimulation paradigms. CONCLUSION: The diverse spectrum of neural responses to stimulation in the kilohertz-frequency range is distinct from that associated with conventional stimulation. This offers the potential for new therapeutic avenues across stimulation modalities. However, stimulation in the kilohertz-frequency range is associated with distinct challenges and caveats that need to be considered in experimental paradigms.
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