Amit Goyal1, Leslie Cho2. 1. Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Heart Vascular Institute, 9500 Euclid Avenue JB-1, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA. 2. Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Heart Vascular Institute, 9500 Euclid Avenue JB-1, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA. chol@ccf.org.
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Risk assessment is the foundational cornerstone for cardiovascular prevention. The goal of this review is to apprise the reader of the latest evidence and guideline-based stepwise method for clinical risk assessment for future atherosclerotic events. We also discuss caveats to the current approach and review future directions including the promise of precision medicine. RECENT FINDINGS: The most recent cholesterol and prevention guidelines improve upon the widely used pooled cohort equations by incorporating risk-enhancing factors to further personalize risk assessment. For those in whom uncertainty remains, there is mounting evidence for using the coronary calcium score to uncover subclinical disease to either up- or down-classify risk. Although still in its infancy, progress in high-throughput molecular analysis is edging the field closer to more precise risk stratification. Atherosclerosis is the leading cause of global morbidity and mortality. Emphasis on cardiovascular prevention is essential to mitigate the burden of disease. Here, we introduce a "4 + 2" paradigm for approaching preventive cardiology based on recent guidelines. Risk stratification is performed in four steps: qualitative risk approximation to initiate counseling and education, quantitative risk estimation based on a validated model, personalization with risk-enhancing factors, and measurement of coronary artery calcium score in select patients. The two foundational principles of preventive management are to promote a healthy lifestyle in all and to escalate preventive pharmacotherapy based on increasing risk. Shared decision-making remains central throughout this process.
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Risk assessment is the foundational cornerstone for cardiovascular prevention. The goal of this review is to apprise the reader of the latest evidence and guideline-based stepwise method for clinical risk assessment for future atherosclerotic events. We also discuss caveats to the current approach and review future directions including the promise of precision medicine. RECENT FINDINGS: The most recent cholesterol and prevention guidelines improve upon the widely used pooled cohort equations by incorporating risk-enhancing factors to further personalize risk assessment. For those in whom uncertainty remains, there is mounting evidence for using the coronary calcium score to uncover subclinical disease to either up- or down-classify risk. Although still in its infancy, progress in high-throughput molecular analysis is edging the field closer to more precise risk stratification. Atherosclerosis is the leading cause of global morbidity and mortality. Emphasis on cardiovascular prevention is essential to mitigate the burden of disease. Here, we introduce a "4 + 2" paradigm for approaching preventive cardiology based on recent guidelines. Risk stratification is performed in four steps: qualitative risk approximation to initiate counseling and education, quantitative risk estimation based on a validated model, personalization with risk-enhancing factors, and measurement of coronary artery calcium score in select patients. The two foundational principles of preventive management are to promote a healthy lifestyle in all and to escalate preventive pharmacotherapy based on increasing risk. Shared decision-making remains central throughout this process.