Multimodal indirect imaging signs of pulmonary embolism.

The clinical diagnosis of pulmonary embolism is often difficult, as symptoms range from syncope and chest pain to shock and sudden death. Adding complexity to this picture, some patients with non-diagnosed pulmonary embolism may undergo unenhanced imaging examinations for a number of reasons, including the prevention of contrast medium-related nephrotoxicity, anaphylactic/anaphylactoid reactions and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, as well as due to patients' refusal or lack of venous access. In this context, radiologists' awareness and recognition of indirect signs are cornerstones in the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism. This article describes the indirect signs of pulmonary embolism on chest X-ray, unenhanced CT, and MRI.