Cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic kidney disease.

Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at increased risk for kidney failure, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and death. In fact, the likelihood of dying from CVD is markedly higher than that for reaching end-stage renal disease. Evidence-based management of comorbidities such as CVD remains challenging in patients with advanced CKD, as they were usually excluded from randomized controlled trials. This review focuses on the epidemiology, risk factors, and clinical manifestations of CVD in patients with advanced CKD. Specific topics of interest include diagnostic and therapeutic challenges of heart failure, coronary artery disease, and atrial fibrillation.