Thermodynamic Stability and Structural Insights for CH3NH3Pb1-xSixI3, CH3NH3Pb1-xGexI3, and CH3NH3Pb1-xSnxI3 Hybrid Perovskite Alloys: A Statistical Approach from First Principles Calculations.

The recent reaching of 20% of conversion efficiency by solar cells based on metal hybrid perovskites (MHP), e.g., the methylammonium (MA) lead iodide, CH3NH3PbI3 (MAPbI3), has excited the scientific community devoted to the photovoltaic materials. However, the toxicity of Pb is a hindrance for large scale commercial of MHP and motivates the search of another congener eco-friendly metal. Here, we employed first-principles calculations via density functional theory combined with the generalized quasichemical approximation to investigate the structural, thermodynamic, and ordering properties of MAPb1-xSixI3, MAPb1-xGexI3, and MAPb1-xSnxI3 alloys as pseudo-cubic structures. The inclusion of a smaller second metal, as Si and Ge, strongly affects the structural properties, reducing the cavity volume occupied by the organic cation and limitating the free orientation under high temperature effects. Unstable and metaestable phases are observed at room temperature for MAPb1-xSixI3, whereas MAPb1-xGexI3 is energetically favored for Pb-rich in ordered phases even at very low temperatures. Conversely, the high miscibility of Pb and Sn into MAPb1-xSnxI3 yields an alloy energetically favored as a pseudo-cubic random alloy with tunable properties at room temperature.

Introduction

Justified by the imminent scarcity of energy sources based on conventional fossil fuels, the recent rise of n class="Chemical">metal halide perovskites (MHP defined by ABX3) as alternative of low cost photovoltaic material has excited the community centered around silicon, which has been considered the principal element in solar cells[1-5]. MHP based on the use of lead iodide () and methylammonium (), i.e., MAPbI3[6-8], reached remarkable 20%[9] of efficiency in lighting conversion devices, which has put it as background for improvements of its photovoltaic performance[10-14]. However, a deeper comprehension of the chemical and structural properties correlated with the optical efficiency is needed. Additionally, for a large scale commercialization of solar cells based on MHP, combining thermodynamic stability and high photovoltaic performance is the key point for the viability of those devices[15-17].

Experiments have revealed the MAPbI3 stability in different structun class="Chemical">ral motifs into a relative short range of temperatures. For example, below 163 K the orthorhombic (Amm2 space group, , , ) is found[18], between 163–328 K the structure becomes tetragonal (I4/mcm space group, , ), and above 328 K[19] MAPbI3 has been suggested as pseudo-cubic (P4mm space group, )[20]. Additionally, the thermodynamic stability of MHP has been investigated aiming their obstacles against the inclement weather, such as UV, moisture, heat, and oxygen, which is crucial for MHP durability of photovoltaic cells[21-24]. Experiments of differential thermal analysis has indicated the decomposition of MAPbI3 tetragonal phase in CH3NH3PbI3(s) → PbI2(s) + CH3NH2(g) + HI(g), in order that for temperatures from 403 K the perovskite gradually starts to be decomposed[25]. It is reported through X-ray diffraction that even after the MAPbI3 systems be submitted under temperature of 443 K the sample keeps as 69% of MAPbI3 and 31% of PbI2[25]. For MASnI3, for instance, X-ray diffraction experiments revealed the presence of tetragonal structure at 423 K, and at room temperature by considering an MASnI3 for as relative quantities between MA:Sn2+ (in 1:x) used throughout the synthesis process, the perovskite adopts a pseudo-cubic structure for some x values[26]. However, the thermal decomposition starts only at 473 K, which is a higher than for MAPbI3.

From the last years the mixtures (alloys) MAPbI3-n class="Chemical">based perovskites has provided a new perspective to stabilize and tune MHP properties from their composition through several different ways, such as: (i) changing the MA+ organic cation by another keeping the charge balance[27-29]; (ii) replacing Pb2+ atoms by another cation, e.g., Sn2+ or Ge2+[30-33]; or (iii) varying the halogen[34-36]. This approach brought a tremendous progress in the development of MAPbI3-based for photovoltaic devices, especially for the MAPb1−BI3 alloys, from which the toxicity of Pb can be suppressed through the use of another congener eco-friendly metal (e.g. B = Sn or Ge)[37,38]. Based on that, those MHP alloys open an enhancement field for the photovoltaic performance by chemical control of the thermodynamic stability and optical properties[20,39-41].

Even though MASnI3 has been investigated as an alternative for lead-free n class="Chemical">perovskite, its low power conversion efficiency[31] and low oxidation resistence[30] are some motivatory hindrances to workaround through the use of alloys. For instance, the MAPbSn1−I3 stable alloy was recently investigated by Hao et al.[31], who showed experimentally the control of the band gap of the MAPbI3 (1.55 eV) for compositions towards MASnI3 pure (1.30 eV), as the lower band gaps in 1.17 eV and 1.24 eV for MAPb0.5Sn0.5I3 and MAPb0.75Sn0.25I3. Furthermore, the study revealed that the MAPb0.5Sn0.5I3 alloy adopts a pseudo-cubic structure, while in so far as the content of Pb increases the structure adopts a tetragonal configuration, i.e., gradually reaching the stable phase of MAPbI3 at room temperature. In others studies focused on the optical and eletrochemical properties[30,42], it was found an increase for the incident photon wavelength for MAPb0.5Sn0.5I3, which was red-shifted to 1060 nm, corresponding to the 260 nm displacement with respect to the MAPbI3 pure. Beyond that, since a large band gap of 1.90 eV for MAGeI3 has been found[43], the MAPbGe1−I3 alloy as tetragonal structure has also been investigated through theoretical calculations[44]. The alloys presented narrower band gaps than their pure perovskites counterparts, so that MAGe0.75Pb0.25I3 composition has presented the highest theoretical efficiency of about 24%. However, this study is restricted to few configurations and a deeper understanding of the structural stability is still needed.

As first attempt to determine the stability of a hibrid perovskite from a specific composition, the Goldschmidt’s tolerance factor (t) is a geometric parameter initially used to predict the ability to form a 3D perovskite[45], which empirically lie into range[7,46]. The t is part of an empirical relation given by , where RA is the effective radii of organic cation, RB the radii for bivalent metal cation, RX for halide anion. However, the Goldschmidt’s tolerance factor is limited to predict the perovskite alloys formation, since that parameters as the miscibility between the different metals involved within the crystal, i.e., concerning the octahedral inner sites occupied by Pb or a second metal B, as well as temperature relative to the thermodynamic favoring associated to the alloy stability, are crucial features for the comprehension of their electronic and atomic properties in dependence with the composition[47]. Furthermore, the Pb/B ratio for the metal size creates crystalline distortions (combined with the different magnitude for the spin-orbit contributions) which gives important insights for electronic characterization of those systems[48-50]. As such, a theoretical study for perovskite alloys needs a proper statistical approach relative to the configurational sampling constituting the statistical ensemble, which is required to calculate the average of thermodynamic and structural properties.

Here, we have performed first-principle calculations based on the Density Functional Theory (DFT) to investigate posn class="Chemical">sible perovskite MAPbI3-based alloys. The generalized quasi-chemical approximation (GQCA) was used as statistical method, from which thermodynamic properties and averages of the structural parameters can be calculated for a wide chemical range at arbitrary temperatures. Thus, an improved picture on the perovskite alloys, since Si, Ge, and Sn metals present different relative atomic size with respect Pb, were studied in a pseudo-cubic MAPbI3 structure, considering their local impact on the structure for different direction within the crystal.

Cluster Expansion and Thermodynamic Treatment

The structural and thermodynamic behaviour of the n class="Chemical">perovskite alloys were investigated through a rigorous and systematic statistical description based on the GQCA[51]. In the GQCA, the alloy (mixture) is described as an ensemble of clusters (herein our supercell), statistically and energetically independent of the surrounding atomic configuration. It has been demonstrated that this model successfully describes the physical properties of several 2D and 3D alloys, as well as to 2D sheets[52-55]. Furthermore, the GQCA method also has been employed in the thermodynamic analysis of perovskite alloys of MAPb(I1−Br)3[56], however, the method was still not employed for perovsksite alloys from the metal perspective.

Within the GQCA size and shape of the clusters play an important role, wherein the supercell model has two advantages: (i) it has a reasonable size for taking into account the local correlation; and (ii) it has an exact counting scheme for the configurational entropy, since no two clusters share the same alloying atom. Based on that, the Fig. 1(a) shows a representation of a MHP as a cubic structure (symmetry group O) with the CH3 cations balancing the anions charges of the octahedrals. We used a supercell with 2 × 2 × 2 expansion of a cubic perovskite by starting from the MAPbI3 system, from which the alloys are made by replacing the 8 octahedral central sites by Sn, Ge, and Si, named by the letter B in the general case, to build the CH3NH3Pb1−SnI3, CH3NH3Pb1−GeI3, and CH3NH3Pb1−SiI3 systems, respectively.

Figure 1

(a) Representation of the MAPb1−BI3 cubic supercell for all the perovskites and alloys based on metals B = Sn, Ge, and Si. (b) 8 sites in the octahedrals numbered to replacement of the metals and formation of the perovskite alloys. (c) Lateral disposition of the organic cations from the perspective of the a and c directions. (d) Perovskite with organic cations from the perspective of the b and c directions.

Regarding the 8 sites involving the replacement of 2 n class="Chemical">metal species, as shown in Fig. 1(b), the total number of possible atomic configurations is given by 2, where n is the number of sites labeled by 12345678, i.e., resulting on 28 = 256 possible configurations for each alloy. However, the 256 atomic configurations can be organized in symmetry equivalent classes by considering all the O space group operations. The Table 1 describes the 22 classes with respect the replacement of the octahedral sites, wherein Pb atoms are labeled by A and the Sn, Ge, and Si atoms by B.

Table 1

The 22 different cluster classes of MHP supercells with 8 sites in the octahedrals to study perovskite alloys with their n B atoms (Sn, Ge, and Si).

j	nj	Configuration 12345678	gj	j	nj	Configuration 12345678	gj
1	0	AAAAAAAA	1	12	4	AAABBBBA	24
2	1	AAAAAAAB	8	13	4	AABBBBAA	6
3	2	AAAAAABB	12	14	4	ABBABAAB	2
4	2	AAAAABBA	12	15	5	AAABBBBB	24
5	2	AAABBAAA	4	16	5	AABBBBAB	24
6	3	AAAAABBB	24	17	5	ABBABABB	8
7	3	AAABABBA	8	18	6	AABBBBBB	12
8	3	AAABBAAB	24	19	6	ABBABBBB	12
9	4	AAAABBBB	6	20	6	ABBBBBBA	4
10	4	AAABABBB	8	21	7	ABBBBBBB	8
11	4	AAABBABB	24	22	8	BBBBBBBB	1

The sequence 12345678 labeling the sites in the cluster can be found in Fig. 1(b), where A is Pb and B are the Sn, Ge, and Si atoms to each alloy, where g is the degeneracy factor.

The Fig. 2 shows a representation of the relative positions of the octhedn class="Chemical">ral occupied by Pb (blue) and B (red) of the 22 classes, as well as their respective compositions x and degeneracies g. Thereby, to describe our statistical ensemble for the perovskite alloys, we considered the set of 9 compositions, as x = 0, 0.125, 0.250, 0.375, 0.500, 0.625, 0.750, 0.875, 1, which were defined by the quantities of both metals involved in the alloy formation. Thus, for a given N as the total number of metals involved (or as the total number of sites occupied aforementioned), with n as the number of Sn, Ge, and Si atoms, and the number of Pb atoms in the cluster j. Thus, the excess energy of each of those j configurations among the 22 possibilities with internal mixing energy Δ can be defined bywhere, E, , and are the total energies of the cluster configuration j, the cluster of MAPbI3, and the cluster of MABI3 with B = Pb, Sn, Ge, and Si pure perovskites. As such, the internal energy is calculated by , where x is the probability distribution for the occurence of a cluster with configuration j. As described elsewhere[51,52,54,55], the occurence probability x of equivalence class j can be estimated by the constrained minimization of the Helmholtz free energy, i.e., , through the GQCA, by considering the probability normalization and average of composition x as calculated by [51,52,57]. Thereby, the distribution is given bywhere , and is an adimensional parameter obtained by the average composition constrain, and g is the degeneracy defined to each j as described in Table 1. The set of probabilities x permits to calculate any arbitrary property for the alloy bywhere p is the local property of each cluster class j.

Figure 2

Representations of the MAPb1−BI3 (with B = Si, Ge, and Si) isomers for each class J for the x = 0, 0.125, 0.250, 0.375, 0.500, 0.625, 0.750, 0.875, 1 compositions. Above each structure, the degeneracy g as used into GQCA method is indicated.

The mixing entropy in Δ equation is calculated aswherein k is the Boltzmann constant and M is the total of clusters. is the Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence as relative entropy measure, which evaluates the n class="Chemical">similarity (or dissimilarity) between the probability calculated through GQCA (x) and the probability of the clusters j in an ideal solid solution (). The function as the random cluster probability distribution for the cluster j is calculated by , by setting a reference from which establishes the deviation of the mixing entropy and the one from the ideal system. Even though previous studies have reported the rotational activity for the methylamonium cations under high finite temperature effects[58-61], which correlates with the typical range of synthesis temperature of MHP (300–400 K)[18,34,58,62], intermittent rotational entropic contributions of the organic cations are not considered in our thermodynamic approach. Furhermore, the Δ values are predominantly determined by the octahedral configurations with sites occupied by Pb or B for the clusters j, as well as the spin-orbit coupling interation used in our calculations which comes only from the metals[63-65]. As such, we set all the cations oriented for the same direction as represented in Fig. 1(c,d), so that the relative directions in a, b, and c were defined as references for the structural analysis.

Results and Discussion

We discuss the structural pan class="Chemical">rameters, such as lattice parameters (on the orthogonal directions a, b, and c), local M-I distances (dM–I), angles I–M–I, between the lattice constants (α, β, and γ), and the volume (Å3) of the unit cell for the MAPb1−BI3 perovskite alloys as a function of the composition and temperature. By taking the Pb atom as reference, the atomic sizes decrease rising in the IV group of the periodic table, as B = Sn, Ge, and Si which are, respectively, 4.08, 17.01, and 32.65% smaller with respect to the Pb atom[66]. These differences in the atomic sizes of the metals correlated with the organic cation occupying the different cavity sizes made by the octahedrals, taking the relative orientations on the a, b, and c directions (as represented in Fig. 1(c,d)), permit a detailed atomistic comprehension for the pure and alloys perovskites in different compositions. Furthermore, a thermodynamic characterization is provided through the mixing internal energy (ΔU), mixing entropy (ΔS), excess of free energy (ΔF), as well as the construction of the phase diagram of the perovskite alloys.

Structural Parameters of the Pure Perovskites and Their Alloys

Pure perovskites

The structural pan class="Chemical">rameters for the MASiI3, MAGeI3, MASnI3, and MAPbI3 perovskites are shown in Table 2. All the structures adopt a pseudo-cubic structure (), in order the lattice constant values correlates with the atomic sizes of the metals into pseudo-cubic structures, i.e., a, b, and c follow MASiI3 < MAGeI3 < MASnI3 < MAPbI3. Our results are in good agreement with experimental reports, for MAPbI3[67] our calculated lattice parameters deviate in , , and , while for MASnI3[31] in , , and . For MAGeI3[68], while our results are , , and with respect to the experimental values, MASiI3 still need accurated experimental structural parameters to compare.

Table 2

Lattice parameters, smallest and largest metal-halide distances (dM–I), M-I-M angles () with respect to the a, b, and c directions, angles between the lattice constants (α, β, and γ), space group representation (SGR), and volume (V) of the unit cell for the MAPbI3, MASnI3, MAGeI3, and MASiI3 perovskites.

System	Space group	Lattice (Å)			Angles (°)			dM–I(Å)			ϕM–I–M(°)			Volume (Å3)
	SGR	a	b	c	α	β	γ	a	b	c	a	b	c	V
MASiI3	P4mm	6.18	6.00	6.16	84	91	92	2.61	2.65	2.69	165	168	164	235.29
								3.62	3.38	3.53
MAGeI3	P4mm	6.20	6.01	6.14	85	91	92	2.70	2.77	2.80	166	167	163	237.07
								3.56	3.28	3.42
MASnI3	P4mm	6.30	6.21	6.32	88	90	90	2.91	3.12	3.05	173	169	170	258.25
								3.43	3.13	3.31
MAPbI3	P4mm	6.35	6.31	6.40	90	90	90	3.02	3.17	3.18	173	167	167	265.79
								3.35	3.17	3.25

Lattice parameters, smallest and larn class="Chemical">gest metal-halide distances (dM–I), M-I-M angles () with respect to the a, b, and c directions, angles between the lattice constants (α, β, and γ), space group representation (SGR), and volume (V) of the unit cell for the MAPbI3, MASnI3, MAGeI3, and MASiI3 perovskites.

We found that the smaller atomic size for n class="Chemical">Si and Ge when compared with Pb contributes to decrease the lattice constants in up to 4.91% (relative to the b direction) for both MASiI3 and MAGeI3 in comparison with MAPbI3. As consequence, their octahedrals are locally more distorted, as can be seen in Table 2 through the differences between the shortest and largest dM–I values on all a, b, and c directions. We found that, in general, throughout the sequence for the atomic size the shortest dM–I distances increase while the largest dM–I distances decrease, which is an effect of the competition of the metals into neighbor octahedrals by the I in the vertice between them. The angles values between the lattice constants (α, β, and γ) and the octahedral connection angles, i.e., , reveals that for MASnI3 and MAPbI3 the local distortions are similar, since their atomic sizes for Sn and Pb are similar. However, for MASiI3 and MAGeI3 the small metal occuping the octahedral sites promote higher deviations for the α, β, and γ angles with respect to the 90°, by leading also to the decreasing of the on all directions also as a local distortion effect on the octahedrals.

Our unit cell volume results increasing as in correlation with the n class="Chemical">metal size, i.e., , suggest the same tendency relative to the cavity size where the organic cation is sited. For instance, the relative similarity between the MAPbI3 and MASnI3 pseudo-cubic structures also can be seen as a similar effect of the organic cation orientation on the a, b, and c lattice directions, yielding a low structural distortion on the pseudo-cubic motif and a low dependency of the structural parameters on a, b, and c directions with respect to the organic cation orientation. Consequently, the largest and shortest dM–I values are similar on b for MAPbI3 (3.17 Å) and MASnI3 (3.13 Å) due to the CH3 and NH3 hydrogen, while on a and c the C-N bond axis its slope effects in the cavity are more pronounced on large and short dM–I values. Conversely, as an effect of the small metal size and a smaller cavity volume, the stronger distortion observed for MASiI3 and MAGeI3 by comparing with MAPbI3 indicates a higher dependency relative to the organic cation orientation.

Therefore, we considered the momentary orientation of the organic cation to understand its effects on the inorganic octahedn class="Chemical">ra. As such, Fig. 1(c,d) shows the MA+ C–N bond axis as momentarily oriented on a, giving the C-N bond axis sloped in the cavity on b, providing lowest energy configuration for the CH3NH3 group as reported by several atomistic simulation studies[56,69,70]. Thus, it is reasonable to expect that even though the high temperature effects promote the MA+ free reorientation in the cavity for MAPbI3, while the reorientation may be slightly limited in the MASiI3 and MAGeI3 pseudo-cubic structures.

Lattice parameters of the alloyed perovskites

The optimization of synthesis process of pure[4,18,34] and alloy[30,31,41] MHP at room tempen class="Chemical">rature have widely been investigated, especially through self-assembling principles from the chemical precursors for the metal halides. As such, our statistic averages were calculated through GQCA at 300 K from the weighted contribution of each j configuration, providing the average of the structural parameters for the MAPb1−BI3 alloys as a function of the composition at room temperature.

We calculated the averan class="Chemical">ge lattice constants into the supercell on the a, b, and c directions, as well as the angles between them and the volume for the unit cell for each j cluster alloy (Fig. 3). Thus, the results connect the values for the MAPbI3 () and MABI3 (), B = Si, Ge, and Sn. We found that the lattice parameters for the MAPb1−SiI3 (panel (a) in Fig. 3) alloy follow the Vegard’s law[71] on the a and b directions, i.e., linearly decrease as a chemical specie with smaller atomic size is included into the bulk, while for the c direction it is observed a bowing. This result is due to the effects of the organic cation orientation taken as reference, wherein the C-N bond into the small cavity size yields different constraints on the lattice on the different directions. For example, on the plane made by b and c directions, on which the C-N bond of the CH3 is perpendicular, there is a deviation of the linearity with respect the composition as an effect of greater permissiveness of lattice distance adjustments with respect to the composition. Furthermore, as a consequence of the higher contraction of the lattice parameters as the Si atoms amount increases, we found a crossing over of the lattice parameters on the a and c, wherein the organic cation orientation yeilds lattice distances as and for the compositions and , respectively.

Figure 3

Lattice parameters (leftmost) in for the directions a, b, and c, angles (middle) between the lattice constants (α, β, and γ), and volume (rightmost) of the unit cell for the MAPb1−SiI3, MAPb1−GeI3, and MAPb1−SnI3 alloys. The symbols filled are the values for the configurations j and the solid lines are the average values within the GQCA calculated at 300.

For the MAPb1−GeI3 alloy, the lattice parameter results were similar with the MAPb1−SiI3 (panel (b) in Fig. 3). We found that the Vegard’s law is followed for all the composition range for the a and b directions. The crossing over between a and c appears from , from which lattice parameters are . Similarly, this result is also explained for the gradual contraction of the lattice parameters due to the small size of the Ge, as a consequence of the replacement of the Pb by Ge atoms, by yeilding a decreasing of the cavity size. As such, even though the C-N atoms of the MA+ are oriented perpendicular to the plane made by b and c orientations, the crossing over between a and c parameters for MAPb1−GeI3 appears for lower quantities of Ge when compared with MAPb1−SiI3, which is a consequence of larger Ge size by comparing with Si.

For the MAPb1−n class="Chemical">SnI3 lattice parameters shown into the panel (c) in Fig. 3, since the atomic sizes of the Pb and Sn atoms are similar there is no crossing over between a and c parameters, and the Vegard’s law is followed in all composition range connecting linearly the lattice parameter of the MAPbI3 and MASnI3 pure perovskites. As such, the linearity connecting the lattice parameters for the Pb-I-Pb, Pb-I-Sn, or Sn-I-Sn combinations are independent of the direction, suggesting that the pseudo-cubic structure for MAPb1−SnI3 alloy is quite resistent with respect to the composition.

Lattice angles and volume of the alloyed perovskites

The panels (d), (e), and (f) in Fig. 3 show the lattice angles (α, β, and γ) for the MAPb1−SiI3, MAPb1−GeI3, and MAPb1−SnI3 alloys as a function of the composition. We found that α and β angles slightly increase between and for MAPb1−SiI3, lying into the interval 90°–92°. Conversely, γ decrease sharply with angle from 90° up to 84°, which is explained by the strong distortion on the pseudo-cubic structure due to the gradual replacement of Pb by Si atoms. Additionally, the volume of the unit cell for the MAPbI3 and MASiI3 pure perovskites are linearlly connected as function of the composition, with values lying between 265.79Å3 and 235.29Å3, which describes the constraction of the alloy by correlating with the Vegard’s law.

For MAPb1−GeI3 alloys, we found that α and β are close to 90° between x = 0 and 0.875, while γ decrease sharply similarly with respect to the MAPb1−SiI3, that is between 90° up to 85°. This result shows the effects of the metals size differences, as well as the linear contraction for the volume of the unit cell between MAPbI3 and MAGeI3. This behaviour is also indicated for the α and β kept in 90° for the MAPb1−SnI3 due to the similar size by comparing Pb and Sn, while γ lie into a short interval between 89°–90°.

M–I distances and M–I–M angles as local structural parameters

To quantify the structural properties locally for the octahedn class="Chemical">rals with respect to the compositions, we calculated their shortest and largest M–I distances (dM–I) and M–I–M angles () on the (a), (b), and (c) directions (Fig. 4). Once a supercell model was used in our calculations, the lie into different values between the shortest and largest M-I-M angles. Thus, the plotted values permit to describe the maximum amplitude of the local distortions relative to the compositions between and . These averages calculated correspond to the equilibrium point relative to the equatorial anharmonic octahedral motion of the iodine atom in M–I–M[72].

Figure 4

Shortest (filled symbols) and largest (empty symbols) M-I distances by M-I pair, i.e., dM–I in (M = Si Ge, Sn, and Pb), and M-I-M angles each cluster j, as in (degrees), for the MAPb1−SiI3, MAPb1−GeI3, and MAPb1−SnI3 systems with respect to the directions a, b, and c, as a function of the alloy composition. The solid lines are the average values calculated within the GQCA calculated at 300.

Shortest (filled symbols) and largest (empty symbols) M-I distances by M-I pair, i.e., dM–I in (M = n class="Chemical">Si Ge, Sn, and Pb), and M-I-M angles each cluster j, as in (degrees), for the MAPb1−SiI3, MAPb1−GeI3, and MAPb1−SnI3 systems with respect to the directions a, b, and c, as a function of the alloy composition. The solid lines are the average values calculated within the GQCA calculated at 300.

The shortest dM–I values (Fig. 4 leftmost) in the alloys are determined by the Si-I, n class="Chemical">Ge-I, and Sn-I distances, which is an effect of the metal size differences with respect to the size of the Pb. One observes that for the a and b directions that for Pb-rich compositions the largest dPb–I values are higher than dM–I values, wherein for few quantities of B the shortening of the B–I distance in an particular octahedral results in an elongation for the Pb–I distance relative to the neighbor octahedral. Thanks to these differences for the metal sizes into the clusters j, one observes an increasing of the amplitude for the shortest and largest dM–I splitted from . This behaviour is explained by the local distortions on the octahedrals as the metal size differences are pronounced, also as an evidence of the organic cation influence on the inorganic lattice since the volume of the cavity decreases from to . Furthermore, except for the dM–I values for Pb-rich composition on a direction, our results show that the shortest and largest dPb–I values tends to keep as the those ones in the MAPbI3 pure perovskite, while the dB–I values converge to the MABI3 pure values even for few quantities of B.

The values for each cluster j on all directions (Fig. 4 rightmost) highlight distortions into the pseudo-cubic alloys, herein stronger as the difference between the n class="Chemical">metals involved increases. For instance, for MAPb1−SiI3 the average values lie between 165°–175°, 160°–175°, and 165°–170° on the a, b, and c directions, respectively. One observes the effects of the strong local distortions induced by the presence of metals so different in size, e.g., Pb and Si, so that there is no linear correlation between the MAPbI3 and MASiI3 in the alloy formation. The MAPb1−GeI3 alloy presents into softer distortion when compared with MAPb1−SiI3, as observed by the values into 165°–175°, 165°–170°, and 165°–170° intervals on the, respectively, a, b, and c directions. Moving to MAPb1−SnI3, the values are similar from both MAPbI3 and MASnI3 pure perovskites, in order that small deviations appear between 170°–175° on the a direction and between 165°–170° on the both b and c directions.

With the results above discussed, we note the important role of the atomic size difference between the n class="Chemical">metals involved in the perovskite alloy formation. For MAPb1−SnI3, as a case of similar size for the metals, the small local distortions into the octahedral and the linearity correlation between the MAPbI3 and MASnI3 pure perovskites show a preference in preserving the pseudo-cubic structure similar to the pure perovskites in the whole range of compositions. Conversely, the MAPb1−SiI3 and MAPb1−GeI3 alloys are examples of large difference between the atomic size of the metals, we found that the composition is an additional variable with respect to the temperature to promotes strong distortions into the phase, reinforcing the necessity of a proper statistical analysis to correlates the thermodynamic stability with the structural motifs for the alloy.

Thermodynamic Parameters and Ordering Preference

To predict the most favorable local arn class="Chemical">rangement of metal in the octahedral inner sites, i.e., the and relative configuration, the alloy excess energies (Δ) were calculated in order to determine the composition-dependent cluster probabilities (x). Consequently, by knowing x as dependent of Δ and the degeneracies g for each j-configuration, we calculate the mixing free energy Δ from the contributions of the interplay between the configurational entropy Δ and the internal energy Δ through the GQCA. As such, below we provide a thermodynamic discussion to enlighten the preferential ordering correlated to the stability of the MAPb1−BI3 perovskite alloys.

Alloy excess energies

The Fig. 5 provides a plot of the Δ values for the 22 considered cluster configun class="Chemical">rations as a function of the B, i.e., the metals Si, Ge, and Sn, as well as the arrangement representations (omitting the MA+ cations) of few configurations and their g values for some compositions x. For the MAPb1−GeI3 and MAPb1−SnI3 alloys, panels (b) and (c), respectively, the most energetically favorable configuration is for , as represented by the arrangement correspondent to the Δ values indicated by the blue dashed box in Fig. 5.

Figure 5

Excess energy (midle) in eV/metal for the each configuration j for the MAPb1−SiI3, MAPb1−GeI3, and MAPb1−SnI3 perovskite alloys. The MA were omitted for the representations of (blue octahedrals) and (red octahedrals). The blue (leftmost) and red (rightmost) dashed boxes guide to the representation of the ordering for () and () with degeneracy . Rightmost are the configurations , , and (black dashed box) for with degeneracies in , , and , respectively.

Excess energy (midle) in eV/metal for the each configun class="Chemical">ration j for the MAPb1−SiI3, MAPb1−GeI3, and MAPb1−SnI3 perovskite alloys. The MA were omitted for the representations of (blue octahedrals) and (red octahedrals). The blue (leftmost) and red (rightmost) dashed boxes guide to the representation of the ordering for () and () with degeneracy . Rightmost are the configurations , , and (black dashed box) for with degeneracies in , , and , respectively.

The panel (a) shows all the positive Δ values for the MAPb1−SiI3 alloy, which means that at there is a high stability of the MAPbI3 and MASiI3 pure perovskites in detriment of the alloy. We found that all the pseudo-cubic configurations strongly distorted between lie into Δ values between 10 and 63 meV/metal, which is an evidence of the high strain yielded by the difference of the atomic size between Pb and Si. By comparing with the Ge alloy, in panel (b), an energetically favored cluster with Δ is observed at , which correlates with a tendency to form a long-range ordered alloy depending on the temperature. However, all the distorted pseudo-cubic configurations for present Δ values between 7 and 30 meV/metal for MAPb1−GeI3. This result suggests that for an MAPb1−BI3 (with B = Si, Ge, or Sn) perovskite alloy energetivally favorable two stability parameters are correlated: (i) the proportion (composition for the alloy) between the metals occupying the octahedral sites; and the (ii) magnitude of the atomic size difference between the metals involved.

As a consequence of small difference between the atomic size for n class="Chemical">Pb and Sn in the MAPb1−SnI3, the Δ values lie in an interval of energies between −9 and 4 meV/metal. Thus, several configurations can be easily favorable when the entropy effects be considered. Therefore, as previously discussed for the structural parameters, such as the lattice parameters, dM–I, and αM–I–M as a function of the a, b, c directions, this results suggest that the replacement of Pb by Sn yields only slight changing in the MAPb1−SnI3 structure. Among all the configurations between and for the short range of Δ values for the MAPb1−SnI3 alloy, additionally to the (−8.82 meV/metal) and (−3.77 meV/metal) compositions showed in Fig. 5, the three possible configurations at are represented by j = 3, 4, and 5, which present Δ in −3.43, −0.88, and −0.82 meV/metal respectively. We observe that the ordering j = 3 as represented in Fig. 5 is the most favored, in which the stability is reached by the stacking of the intercalated and octahedral rows.

Perovskite alloys free energies and ordering

Here, we discuss the statistical contributions of the Δ values for the thermodynamic properties for the alloys under the temperature effects through the GQCA method. The variation in the energy of mixing (ΔU) and entropy of mixing (ΔS) used to calculate the Helmholtz free energies (ΔF in m/n class="Chemical">metal) for the MAPb1−SiI3, MAPb1−GeI3, and MAPb1−SnI3 alloys within the GQCA are shown in Fig. 6. In order to verify the entropy effects for the stabilities of the alloys, we analysed these parameters as a function of low and high temperatures, e.g., 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 K.

Figure 6

Thermodynamic parameters as a function of the alloy composition and temperature for MAPb1−SiI3, MAPb1−GeI3, and MAPb1−SnI3 calculated within the GQCA at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 K. Panels (a–c) are the averages of the internal energies in m/metal (ΔU); panels (d–f) are the averages of the entropy contribution as a function of the temperature in meVK−1/metal (TΔS); and panels (g–i) are the Helmholtz free energy in m/metal (ΔF).

Thermodynamic parameters as a function of the alloy compon class="Chemical">sition and temperature for MAPb1−SiI3, MAPb1−GeI3, and MAPb1−SnI3 calculated within the GQCA at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 K. Panels (a–c) are the averages of the internal energies in m/metal (ΔU); panels (d–f) are the averages of the entropy contribution as a function of the temperature in meVK−1/metal (TΔS); and panels (g–i) are the Helmholtz free energy in m/metal (ΔF).

One observes by the ΔS symmetrical curves with temperature around , panels (d), (e), and (f), indican class="Chemical">ting that all the alloys follow an ideal entropy expression at high temperatures, i.e., . The ΔU curves for MAPb1−SiI3 – panel (a) – present a positive parabolic behaviour due to the higher stability of the MAPbI3 and MASiI3 pure perovskites in comparison with the alloy. Thus, the profile of the ΔU and ΔS curves indicates that the alloy can be stabilized by entropic contributions, consequently by increasing the magnitude of disorder through the insertion of Si atoms, which promotes the contribution of several j configurations. The panel (g) shows a behaviour slightly asymmetric for the ΔF curve around , so that for we found Δ as an evidence of the instability of the alloy at low temperatures. However, for one observes that Δ and the alloy starts to be stable, and for temperatures between there are points throughout ΔF with same tangent, indicating the existence of a miscibility gap for an extensive range of temperatures.

For the MAPb1−n class="Chemical">GeI3 alloy, we found that the ΔF – panel (h) – presents points with same tangent for , which is a range of lower temperatures for the miscibility gap than for MAPb1−SiI3. The ΔF reaches symmetrical curves for temperatures higher than 500 K, which the entropy effects start to be dominant over the small negative ΔU values, panel (b), for few Ge quantities. Conversely, with the increasing of the temperature, the disordering is reached with the weighted contributions of all and octahedrals configurations, from which the random configurations for compositions are the most favorable.

The ΔU curves profile for the MAPb1−n class="Chemical">SnI3 alloy – panel (c) – show the effect of the favorable ordering for compositions with excess of both Pb and Sn metals, as x = 0.125, and 0.875. Firstly, this yields two regions for Δ relative to the orderings as represented in Fig. 5, so that the alloy stabilizes when the individual octahedrals are completely involved by octahedrals, as well as for the opposite configuration, i.e., individual octahedrals completely involved by . Secondly, the short range of excess energies for MAPb1−SnI3 yields a short interval of ΔU variation as a function of the composition and temperature. Thus, for temperatures higher than 100 K the entropy effects are dominant, so that the shape of the ΔF curve becomes more symmetric in order that the contribution of all configurations increases with the temperature, consequently, increasing the disordering of and positions in the alloy. As such, it is expected to observe a miscibility gap in MAPb1−SnI3 alloy with pseudo-cubic structure only for very low temperatures, since there is no effective variation of the structural environment when the Pb in the octahedral sites are replaced by Sn, which is a result of the almost similar atomic size between both metals.

To investigate the similarity between the GQCA probability and a n class="Chemical">random alloy, relative to the random contribution of a particular j configuration in a range of temperatures, we present the KL divergence, namely, D(), Fig. 7. The maximum divergence at low temperatures means that in a particular composition the configuration j relative to the x dominates over the others, and in so far as the temperature increases the divergence goes to zero, i.e., the system starts to behave as a random alloy. In Fig. 7(a–c) are plotted the D() for MAPb1−SiI3, MAPb1−GeI3, and MAPb1−SnI3 for the compositions at x = 0.125 and 0.875 as a function of the temperature. For MAPb1−SiI3 at very low temperatures one observes a tendency for phase segregation with the formation of MAPbI3 and MASiI3 pure perovskites, as observed through x plots in Fig. 7(d,g), wherein there is a predominancy of x1 and x22 configurations at compositions x = 0.125 and 0.875, respectively. For MAPb1−GeI3, panel (b), clearly it is seen that at the divergence is smaller than for at very low temperatures, so that the ordering given by the configuration dominates at composition for the alloying at Pb-rich compositions (panel (e)), as well as yields a small contribution at together with the dominant x22 configuration (panel (h)). Conversely, for MAPb1−SnI3 at and and at low temperature, panel (c), one observes the high miscibility between Pb and Sn as an effect of the similar metal size. Thereby, the x plots, panels (f) and (i), show the predominancy of the () at () at 0 K, demonstrating the tendency of the system in organizing itself in energetically favored alloyed configurations even at very small temperatures. The observed ordering of atomic distribution, however, does not persist for temperatures above 150 K.

Figure 7

(Leftmost) Kullback-Leibler divergence – D() – for all the alloys between the ideal solid solution and GQCA probability distributions and probabilities x (rightmost) for the ordering , , , and 22 as a function of temperature and compositions at x = 0.125 and 0.875.

(Leftmost) Kullback-Leibler divergence – D() – for all the alloys between the ideal solid solution and GQCA probability distributions and probabilities x (rightmost) for the ordering , , , and 22 as a function of tempen class="Chemical">rature and compositions at x = 0.125 and 0.875.

Phase diagram of the alloys

To identify regions of stability and metaestability as a function of the temperature and composition, we built the phase diagram for the alloys at the pseudo-cubic structure, as shown in Fig. 8. We observe for MAPb1−SiI3 (leftmost), MAPb1−GeI3 (middle), and MAPb1−SnI3 (rightmost) critical temperatures (T) of 527, 440, and 204 K, respectively. Above T the solid solution are stable for any composition, whereas below them are evidenced the presence of miscibility gaps to each alloy defined by spinodal lines, given by and (blue regions), as well as binodal lines from the and points defining the metaestability regions.

Figure 8

Predicted phase diagram of the MAPb1−SiI3, MAPb1−GeI3, and MAPb1−SnI3 alloys at pseudo-cubic structure. The blue and red regions are the miscibility gap (spinodal line) and metaestability (defined by the binodal line) regions, respectively, while the white region is the stable solid-solution with respect the temperature and compositions. The dashed line indicates the critical temperature (T) for each alloy.

For MAPb1−n class="Chemical">SiI3, due to the ΔF profile observed especially for its formation at room temperature (300 K), as shown in Fig. 6, its phase diagram presents unstable regions from Pb- to Si-rich compositions at low temperatures, yielding two miscibility gaps in dependence of the composition region. For instance, for Pb-rich compositions the first miscibility gap lies between and , whereas the second one, relative to the Si-rich compositions, lies in the interval of up to . One observes that the first miscibility gap reduces as the temperature increases up to 445 K, from which a solid solution is formed for Pb-rich compositions. However, only from at the solution solid is stable into all composition interval. Furthermore, from the end of the first miscibility gap up to the beginning of the second one, i.e., between the set of compositions into x = 0.19 − 0.45, the alloy present a metaestable phase resistant to the thermal fluctuations due to the valley yielded by the configurations j indicated within the dashed retangle in Fig. 5.

For the MAPb1−GeI3 alloy, a stable solid solution is observed in all range of temperatures only for Pb-rich compositions between for , while at 300 K the miscibility gap appears between and . At 400 the intervals for miscibility gap and metaestable phases are shorter than at room temperature. By comparing the MAPb1−SiI3 and MAPb1−GeI3 alloys at compositions Si-, Ge-, and Pb-rich, one observes a behavior very different due to the effect of the Pb/Si and Pb/Ge metal size differences. Even though there is a stability of the MAPb1−GeI3 alloy for Pb-rich into all temperatures, the symmetrical-like spinodal line at 300 K yields a stability for a range of Ge-rich compositions. Additionally, metaestable phases are observed into x = 0.20 − 0.31 and x = 0.70 − 0.81 intervals of compositions.

We found that the critical temperatures T for MAPb1−SiI3, MAPb1−GeI3, and MAPb1−SnI3, from which the solid solution at all compositions is stable, correlates with the atomic size difference for the metals involved. For example, the Fig. 8 shows also the phase diagram for the MAPb1−SnI3, in which one observes the effects of small difference between the Pb and Sn atomic size from the high solubility of the metals into MASnI3 and MAPbI3, respectively. Since the critical temperature is , at 300 K a stable solid solution is observed within all range of compositions, which is in agreement with Hao et al.[31] experiments for the synthesis of MAPb1−SnI3 who observed a high stability of the pseudo-cubic structure of the MAPb0.5Sn0.5I3 alloy, as well as in others compositions. Furthermore, we found a miscibility gap slightly symmetrical for MAPb1−SnI3 appearing only at very low temperatures, since the local distortions into the structure are suppressed and the entropic effects are restricted to the configurations of the and octahedrals. Therefore, by taking as reference and as experimental temperatures in which the MAPbI3 and MASnI3 pure perovskites start to be decomposed[25,26], our results show that there is a range of temperatures from in which the MAPb1−SnI3 is stable as a random alloy before a possible thermal decomposition. Furthermore, for the others alloys, those results may be as a guide for future synthetic process for the MAPb1−SiI3 and MAPb1−GeI3 alloys, from which it is expected the phase segregations for some range of compositions.

Conclusions

In summary, we have performed first-principles calculations combined with a statistical approach based on cluster expansion to study the stability, effects of disorder, distortions, thermodynamic properties, and phase segregation of the pseudo-cubic phase of MAn class="Chemical">Pb1−BI3 alloys for B = Si, Ge, and Sn.

Our results indicated that the metal atomic size plays an important role on the pseudo-cubic properties of the pure perovskites, e.g., as the similar local distortions for the MAPbI3 and MASnI3 octahedrals since their metals have almost the same atomic size. As such, the MAPb1−SnI3 alloy presents lattice parameters in good agreement with the Vegard’s law for the whole range of compositions, wherein the alloy adopts a random and octahedral configurations. Conversely, MASiI3 and MAGeI3 in pseudo-cubic structure are strongly distorted as an effect of their second smaller metal in comparison with Pb, suggesting a higher limitation of the organic cation orientation on the lattice directions for the MAPb1−SiI3 and MAPb1−GeI3 alloys, since the cavity volume is reduced. For those cases, the alloys follow the Vegard’s law for some particular lattice directions, whereas the others there is a pronounced bowing throughout the range of compositions.

The thermodynamic results revealed that the MAPb1−n class="Chemical">GeI3 alloy is stable for Pb-rich compositions, i.e., between at 300 K, by presenting a preference for an ordered configuration in which one octahedral is surrounded by octahedrals. Conversely, MAPb1−SiI3 is not favored into very large range of compositions, and even though has presented an interval of compositions into which the alloy is metaestable (into x = 0.19 − 0.45), it indicated a high tendency for segregation phase in MAPbI3 and MASiI3 pure perovskites. Thus, the addition of small metal atoms yields strong local distortions on the octahedrals, resulting in very high critical temperatures for these alloys. As an exemple of miscibility, the MAPb1−SnI3 alloy presented a critical temperature lower than the room temperature, at 204 K, which is very lower than the temperature of decomposition for the MAPbI3 and MASnI3 pure perovskites. Thus, the alloy is favored as a random alloy in all compositions, revealing that there is a safe range of temperatures in which the MAPb1−SnI3 alloy properties can be tuned before the material be thermally decomposed.

Therefore, beyond the temperature as variable, the correlation between composition and atomic size, relative to the second metal in MAPbI3-based alloys, is a crucial element to promotes the phase stability. The thermodynamic characterization of these alloys for intermediate Pb-based compositions showed the importance of the planning relative to the experimental synthesis conditions, such as temperature and composition, aiming the structural motifs correlated with their performance into solar cells devices.

Theoretical Approach and Computational Details

In this study, to calculate the total energy of the configurations of the alloy in all the n class="Chemical">range of compositions, we employed spin-polarized calculations based on DFT[73,74] within the semilocal Perdew–Burke–Ernzerhof[75] (PBE) formulation for the exchange-correlation energy functional. The projected augmented wave[76,77] (PAW) method as implemented in the Vienna ab initio simulation package (VASP), version 5.4.1.[78,79] was used to solve the Kohn–Sham (KS) equations, in which the scalar-relativistic approximation is considered to the core states, as well the spin-orbit coupling (SOC) interactions. However, SOC is an important relativistic phenomenon in Pb-based perovskites[63-65], especially occurring within non-spherical atomic orbitals and affecting the directionality of the metal bonds[7], so that we included SOC interactions also for the valence states in all our calculations.

For total energy calculations, we employed a plane-waves expansion with kinetic energy cutoff of 500, by integn class="Chemical">rating over the Brillouin zone calculated considering a Monkhorst-Pack k-mesh of 4 × 4 × 4. The total energy convergence to 1.0 × 10−5 eV with Gaussian broadening parameter of 50 for all calculations. Finally, the equilibrium of the Hellmann-Feynman forces on every atom were reached to forces smaller than 0.010 eV/Å.