Evolutionary associations between polyploidy, clonal reproduction, and perenniality in the angiosperms.

Clonal reproduction is thought to facilitate polyploid establishment in the angiosperms, but the evolutionary relationship between polyploidy and clonality has not been thoroughly tested. A perennial life history may confer many of the same advantages, and the relative importance of clonality versus perenniality is unknown. We used phylogenetic comparative analyses of 1751 species to examine associations between polyploidy, clonality, and life history. We test hypotheses of co-evolution by determining the sequence of trait development. Polyploidy is associated with both clonality and perenniality across species, and analyses show that clonality can be an important predictor of polyploidy beyond perenniality. Tests of directionality on our full dataset suggest that polyploidy is more likely to promote clonality or perenniality than vice versa, although there are significant differences in patterns of co-evolution among major angiosperm groups. Our results suggest that polyploidy and clonal reproduction are evolutionarily associated across the angiosperms, even when perenniality is considered, but we find little evidence at the whole-angiosperm level for the hypothesis that clonality promotes polyploidy. However, variation among different clades indicates that polyploidy and clonality are interacting in diverse ways, likely to be due to the variable roles of clonality in their evolutionary histories.