Eggshell resorption, and embryonic mobilization and accumulation of calcium and metals in eggs of wild and captive Capercaillies Tetrao urogallus.

Although it is fairly well known that eggshells are the major source of Ca and other micronutrients for developing avian embryos, potential anatomical and/or ecological correlates explaining the variation in embryo-induced depletion of micronutrients from eggshells remain to be addressed. Using unhatched eggs at various developmental stages and post-hatched eggshells of wild and captive-bred birds of a large precocial species, the Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus, we explored two major questions. (i) Do egg size, regional eggshell thickness as well as levels of two major micronutrients (Ca and Mg) and eight trace elements (Cr, Cu, Mn, Fe, Co, Cd, Pb and Zn) measured in egg shells and contents vary with embryonic age within and between wild and captive-bred bird eggs? (ii) How the proportions of eggshell elements become depleted during the entire process of embryogenesis? The eggshells of wild Capercaillies were thinner at the equator and the sharp pole, and contained more Mg and Ca, while in their contents there was more Cu, Cd and Pb compared with captive birds. All ten metal concentrations measured in the egg contents increased (from 15% to 285% more) with the age of embryos. The concentrations of six elements measured in eggshells (Cu, Mn, Fe, Co, Cd and Zn) decreased consistently (from 15 to 70% less) during embryogenesis. This suggests the presence of these elements in the innermost decalcified shell layer and their further mobilization into the embryos/egg contents. Our results strongly imply that most trace elements present in the egg contents/developing embryos are mobilized from the eggshells. We highlight the fact that knowledge of the magnitude of embryogenesis-related functional changes in the physical (such as shell thickness) and chemical traits of the eggs and eggshells of oviparous vertebrates is fundamental for drawing correct inferences regarding the response of an individual to variable environmental conditions.