The physics of jamming for granular materials: a review.

Granular materials consist of macroscopic grains, interacting via contact forces, and unaffected by thermal fluctuations. They are one of a class systems that undergo jamming, i.e. a transition between fluid-like and disordered solid-like states. Roughly twenty years ago, proposals by Cates et al for the shear response of colloidal systems and by Liu and Nagel, for a universal jamming diagram in a parameter space of packing fraction, ϕ, shear stress, τ, and temperature, T raised key questions. Contemporaneously, experiments by Howell et al and numerical simulations by Radjai et al and by Luding et al helped provide a starting point to explore key insights into jamming for dry, cohesionless, granular materials. A recent experimental observation by Bi et al is that frictional granular materials have a a re-entrant region in their jamming diagram. In a range of ϕ, applying shear strain, γ, from an initially force/stress free state leads to fragile (in the sense of Cates et al), then anisotropic shear jammed states. Shear jamming at fixed ϕ is presumably conjugate to Reynolds dilatancy, involving dilation under shear against deformable boundaries. Numerical studies by Radjai and Roux showed that Reynolds dilatancy does not occur for frictionless systems. Recent numerical studies by several groups show that shear jamming occurs for finite, but not infinite, systems of frictionless grains. Shear jamming does not lead to known ordering in position space, but Sarkar et al showed that ordering occurs in a space of force tiles. Experimental studies seeking to understand random loose and random close packings (rlp and rcp) and dating back to Bernal have probed granular packings and their response to shear and intruder motion. These studies suggest that rlp's are anisotropic and shear-jammed-like, whereas rcp's are likely isotropically jammed states. Jammed states are inherently static, but the jamming diagram may provide a context for understanding rheology, i.e. dynamic shear in a variety of systems that include granular materials and suspensions.