Unravelling mechanisms of nitrofurantoin resistance and epidemiological characteristics among Escherichia coli clinical isolates.

The aim of this study was to investigate mechanisms of nitrofurantoin resistance and epidemiological characteristics in Escherichia coli clinical isolates. From a total of 1444 E. coli clinical isolates collected from our hospital in 2015, 18 (1.2%) nitrofurantoin-resistant E. coli isolates were identified with nitrofurantoin minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranging from 128 µg/mL to ≥512 µg/mL. The prevalence of the nfsA gene in nitrofurantoin-resistant, -intermediate and -susceptible isolates was 88.9%, 88.9% and 100%, respectively, and the prevalence of the nfsB gene was 66.7%, 61.1% and 100%, respectively. Eight nitrofurantoin-resistant isolates and two nitrofurantoin-intermediate isolates possessed oqxAB genes. In nitrofurantoin-resistant isolates, mutations in NfsA (the majority of mutated sites were I117T and G187D, accounting for 38.9%) and/or NfsB were detected, whereas only NfsA mutations were found in intermediate isolates and no sequence changes were detected in susceptible isolates. A ≥4-fold decrease in MIC was observed in eight nitrofurantoin-resistant isolates following addition of the efflux pump inhibitor carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP). The mean expression level of oqxB in nitrofurantoin-resistant isolates increased ca. 7-fold compared with intermediate isolates. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) categorised the 18 nitrofurantoin-resistant isolates into 11 different sequence types. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) analysis revealed that homology among the nitrofurantoin-resistant isolates was low and sporadic. In conclusion, mutations in nfsA and nfsB were the main mechanisms leading to nitrofurantoin resistance, and overexpression of the oqxAB gene might help to further increase the MIC of nitrofurantoin.