Layered Scaffolds for Osteochondral Tissue Engineering.

Despite huge efforts, tissue engineers and orthopedic surgeons still face a great challenge to functionally repair osteochondral (OC) defects. Nevertheless, over the past decade great progress has been made to find suitables strategies towards OC regeneration. In the clinics, some osteochondral tissue engineering (OCTE) strategies have already been applied although with some incongruous outcomes as OC tissue is complex in its architecture and function. In this chapter, we have summarized current OCTE strategies that are focused on hierarchical scaffold design, mainly layered scaffolds. Most suitable candidates towards functional regeneration of OC tissues are envisaged from monophasic to layered scaffolds. Herein is documented a variety of strategies with their intrinsic properties for further application as bare scaffolds or in combination with biologics. Both in vitro and in vivo approaches have been thoroughly studied aiming at functional OC regeneration. The most noteworthy studies in OC regeneration developed within the past 5 years are herein documented as well as some current clinical trials.