A new compound of thiophenylated pyridazinone IMB5043 showing potent antitumor efficacy through ATM-Chk2 pathway.

Through cell-based screening models, we have identified a new compound IMB5043, a thiophenylated pyridazinone, which exerted cytotoxicity against cancer cells. In the present study, we evaluated its antitumor efficacy and the possible mechanism. By MTT assay, IMB5043 inhibited the proliferation of various human cancer cells lines, especially hepatocarcinoma SMMC-7721 cells. IMB5043 blocked cell cycle with G2/M arrest, induced cell apoptosis, and inhibited the migration and invasion of SMMC-7721 cells. As verified by comet assay and γ-H2AX foci formation, IMB5043 caused DNA damage and activated ATM, Chk2 and p53 through phosphorylation. As shown by Gene microarray analysis, the differentially expressed genes in SMMC-7721 cells treated with IMB5043 were highly related to cell death and apoptosis. IMB5043 suppressed the growth of hepatocarcinoma SMMC-7721 xenograft in athymic mice. By histopathological examination, no lesions were found in bone marrow and various organs of the treated mice. Our findings reveal that IMB5043 as an active compound consisting of both pyridazinone and thiophene moieties exerts antitumor efficacy through activation of ATM-Chk2 pathway. IMB5043 may serve as a promising leading compound for the development of antitumor drugs.

Introduction

Many therapeutic drugs and ionizing radiation exert their cytotoxic effects by inducing DNA damage response (DDR). Two DDRs pathways that control signal transduction have been characterized [1]. One of the pathways comprises ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) and its downstream target, checkpoint kinase 2 (Chk2). ATM is a DNA damage sensor that plays a key role in controlling the DDR and activated by DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) through autophosphorylation [2]. Activated ATM in turn phosphorylates a number of substrates such as histone H2AX, nibrin (Nbs1), BRCA1, cell-cycle checkpoint kinases Chk1 and Chk2, p53 and others repair factors [3]. A key substrate of ATM is Chk2. As described in detail previously [4], Chk2 has a dual function as it activates both apoptosis and cell cycle checkpoints [5, 6]. Chk2 is an important protein involved in cell cycle arrest due to DSBs [7, 8]. The other pathway comprises ATR and checkpoint kinase 1 (Chk1). This pathway is usually activated when DNA replication problems occur. For example, single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) has an important role in ATR activation [9].

During the screening of anticancer drugs using the EMT-mimetic (epithelial-mesenchymal transition) assay, we found a novel compound and its structure is verified as 2-(4,5-dibromo-6-oxo-1,6-dihydropyridazin-1-yl)-N-methyl-N-[(thiophen-3-yl)methyl]acetamide, designated as IMB5043 (Fig 1A). As a novel compound with both of the pyridazinone and thiophene moieties, its biological activity has not been reported. In the present study, we investigated its cytotoxicity against various cancer cell lines and its mechanism, with special focus on the ATM-CHK2 pathway activated by DDR in hepatocarcinoma SMMC-7721 cells. Moreover, its antitumor efficacy against human tumor xenografts was presented.

Fig 1

Chemical structure of IMB5043 and its effect on cancer cell lines.

(A) Chemical structure of IMB5043. (B) IC50 of IMB5043 in various cancer cells. Cells were treated with different concentrations of IMB5043 for 24 h, and IC50 is calculated. Data shown are means ± SD. (C). Effect of IMB5043 on the morphology of SMMC-7721 cells were observed by bright field microscopy (100×). (D). Effect of IMB5043 on the nucleus of SMMC-7721 cells were observed by fluorescent microscopy (200×). The nucleus was staining by Hoest33342. (E) Effect of IMB5043 on the nucleus of SMMC-7721 cells were observed by Electron Microscopy (6000×). SMMC-7721 cells were incubated with indicated concentration of IMB5043 for 24 h. The representative picture is shown.

Materials and methods

Ethics statement

All animal experiments were carried out under approval of the Committee on the Ethics of Animal Experiments of the Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (IMBF20160302). The study protocols comply with the recommendations in the Regulation for the Management of Laboratory Animals of the Ministry of Science and Technology of China.

Reagents and antibodies

IMB5043 (molecular weight, 421 Dalton) was stocked in our chemical compound library with a purity over 95% (China Patent: No. 2017104291866). Anti-Histone H2AX was purchased from EMD Millipore Corporation and all the other antibodies were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology.

Cell lines and culture conditions

Human hepatoma SMMC-7721 cells, human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells, human colon adenocarcinoma SW480 and HCT116 cells, and human pancreatic carcinoma MIA PaCa-2 cells were purchased from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC). These cell lines have been tested with STR analysis by China Center for Type Culture Collection (CCTCC). The human pancreatic carcinoma BxPC-3 cell line and human hepatocyte cell line L02 was provided by the Cell Resource Center, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, CAMS/PUMC; the identity of the cell line was authenticated with STR profiling and used within 6 months. MIA PaCa-2 cell line was cultured in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle medium (Hyclone; Thermo Fisher Scientific). Other cell lines were cultured in RPMI-1640 (Hyclone; Thermo Fisher Scientific) medium; in addition, 1 mM sodium pyruvate (Gibco) was supplemented for the BxPC-3 cell line. All media were supplemented with 10% (v/v) of heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS, Gibco; Life Technologies), penicillin G (100 U/mL), and streptomycin (100 μg/mL). The cells were cultured in an incubator, maintained at 37°C with 5% CO2.

Cytotoxicity assay

The cytotoxicity determination was performed using MTT assay. Cells were seeded in 96-well plates for 24 h, then treated with different concentrations of IMB5043 for 24 h. After that, 20 μL of MTT (Amresco) solution (5 mg/mL) were added to each well and 4 h later, the supernatant was removed and 150 μL DMSO was added to each well on a shaker for 10 min. The absorbance was measured at 570 nm using a microplate reader (Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA). Cells treated with PBS served as control. The value for 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of the tested samples was calculated.

Immunofluorescence staining

SMMC-7721 cells were seeded on coverslips and treated with IMB5043 for 24 h. After fixation with 4% paraformaldehyde and permeabilization with 0.1% Triton X-100, the cells were incubated with anti-H2AX antibody overnight at 4°C. After washing 3 times, FITC-conjugated secondary antibody was added and incubated for 30 min. The cells were treated with Hoechst33342 (10 μg/mL) for 10 min for DNA staining. The images were taken under a fluorescence microscope (Olympus IX81).

Wound closure assay

SMMC-7721 cells were seeded at 1x104 cells/well in 96-well plates. After cells reached 90% confluence, a wound was incised with a pipette tip in the central area of culture, and IMB5043 was added. Photographs were taken under microscopy immediately after the addition, after 24 h and 48 h, respectively.

Cell migration and invasion assays

To assess cell motility, chamber assays were performed using transwell cell migration chamber plates (8-μM pore size, 12-well format; Corning, USA). SMMC-7721 cells (2×105 cells) were suspended in 100 μL RPMI-1640 containing 1% serum with varying concentrations of IMB5043 and placed in the upper compartment of the chamber. The lower compartment of the chamber was filled with 600 μl RPMI-1640 containing 20% serum. To assess cell invasion, total 50-μL matrigel was dispersed on the upper side of the transwell cell migration chamber. After 16 h of incubation with varying concentrations of IMB5043 at 37˚C, the non-migratory or non-invasive cells were removed with a cotton-tipped applicator, and the cells that penetrated through to the bottom of the chamber were stained with hematoxylin. The cells that had invaded through matrigel and reached the reverse side were counted under a microscope in five predetermined fields at a magnification of ×200.

Transmission electron microscopy observation

Transmission electron microscopy was applied to investigate the subcellular changes in SMMC7721 cells treated with IMB5043. The ultrastructure changes of the treated cells were compared with that of control. IMB5043 treated cells were collected and washed with PBS twice and fixed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde at 4°C for 2 h, then rinsed in PBS, and embedded in 3% agarose. The following procedure included fixation, dehydration, imbedding, polymerization, ultrathin section and staining. The sections were analyzed by using transmission electron microscope (Tecnai G2 Spirit, FEI).

Flow cytometry for cell cycle and apoptosis analysis

The effect of IMB5043 on cell cycle was analyzed by flow cytometry using propidium iodide (PI) DNA staining. SMMC7721 cells were treated with different concentrations of IMB5043 for 24 h. Cells were harvested by centrifugation and washed with PBS. The cells were fixed with ice-cold 75% ethanol at 4˚C overnight. Subsequently, the fixed cells were incubated in a solution containing 100 μg/mL RNase for 30 min and then 50 μg/mL propidium iodide for 30 min at 37˚C in the dark. Stained cells were analyzed in a flow cytometer (Beckman Coulter).

Apoptosis was detected using an Annexin V-FITC Apoptosis Detection Kit (Beijing Biosea Biotechnology). Cells were plated in 12-well culture plates at the density 1 × 105 cells per well and incubated at 37°C for 24 h. Then different concentrations of IMB5043 were added for another 24 h, respectively. Following the instructions provided by the manufacturer, cells were resuspended in Annexin V binding buffer; and then Annexin V-FITC and propidium iodide (PI) were added and incubated for 30 min at 4°C. The ratio of apoptotic cells was determined by flow cytometry.

Western blot

Protein extracts were prepared with the ice-cold high efficiency RIPA tissue/cell lysis buffer (Beijing Solarbio Science & Technology Co., Ltd). Thirty micrograms of each total protein were applied on 5%- 15% SDS-PAGE according molecular weight of detected proteins, then subjected to electrophoretic analysis and blotting. All primary antibodies were incubated overnight at 4°C; and then incubated with peroxidase-coupled antibody at RT for 2 h which was used for detecting the primary antibody binding. Protein bands were visualized with an enhanced chemiluminescence kit (Merck Millipore).

In vivo therapeutic efficacy

For evaluation of the therapeutic efficacy of IMB5043, animal experiment was performed with SMMC-7721 xenograft model. The study protocols were in accordance with the regulations of Good Laboratory Practice for Non-clinical laboratory studies of drugs issued by the National Scientific and Technologic Committee of People’s Republic of China. Female BALB/c athymic mice (6–8 weeks old) were purchased from the Center of Experimental Animals, Academy of Military Medical Sciences in Beijing. SMMC-7721 cells suspended in PBS (1×107 cells/200 μL) were inoculated subcutaneously in right armpit of athymic mice. Approximately one month later, the grown tumors were excised aseptically and the non-necrotic tumor tissue was cut into pieces (2 mm3 in size); then a piece tumor tissue was transplanted into the right armpit of nude mice by a trocar. When the tumor reached approximately 100 mm3 in size, tumor-bearing mice were randomly divided into 3 groups (n = 6) and treated respectively with physiologic saline (i.p.), 12.5 mg/kg, and 25 mg/kg IMB5043 (i.p.), 5 times a week, a total of 2 weeks. Tumor size and body weight were measured every 3–4 days and mice were monitored daily for general appearance, food intake, mobility and sign of morbidity during the experiment (14–26 days). The tumor volume was calculated with the following formula: V (mm3) = 0.5×a×b2, where a, and b represent the long and the perpendicular short diameters of the tumor, respectively. The endpoint was set when the tumor size was up to 20 mm at the largest diameter (Tumor size was 2500 mm3 in control group). The mice were sacrificed with CO2 inhalant anesthetics and the tumors were dissected. In addition, specimens were taken from the tumor and various organs for histopathological examination. The specimens were fixed in 10% formalin and embedded in paraffin. Sections were cut into 5 μM in thickness and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E). Histopathological changes were observed with a Leica microscope system.

Microarrays and gene expression analysis

SMMC-7721 cells were treated with 1 μM IMB5043 or control (0.1% DMSO) for 24 h. Total RNA was extracted using TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen). An Affymetrix PrimeView Human Gene Expression Array was used to investigate the changes in transcriptional profiles. The experiment was performed based on the manufacturer’s standard protocols. Genes with ≥1.5-fold change between two groups were identified as differentially expressed genes. The microarray data are available at ArrayExpress under accession number E-MTAB-6359.

Statistical analysis

Data were calculated with Microsoft Excel or GraphPad Prism 6 software, which was presented as the mean ± SD. One-way ANOVA followed by Student’s t-test was used to determine significant differences between two groups of data. P values < 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

Results

Cytotoxicity of IMB5043 against different cell lines

The cytotoxicity of IMB5043 against a variety of cancer cell lines was tested using an MTT assay. The cytotoxicity to non-cancerous cells was examined with the human hepatocyte L02 cells. As shown in Fig 1B, the different cell lines showed varied sensitivities to IMB5043 (Fig 1B). SMMC-7721 cells were highly sensitive to IMB5043 with an IC50 of 3.56 μM. By contrast, the non-cancerous L02 cells were relatively insensitive to IMB5043 with IC50 of 14.95 μM. In terms of IC50 values, SMMC-7721 cells were used in the following experiments.

The cell morphological changes in SMMC-7721 cells treated with IMB5043 were observed using light microscopy, fluorescence microscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). As shown in Fig 1C, IMB5043 at lower concentrations (1 μM and 2 μM) induced enlargement of cell sizes, but at higher concentrations (4 μM) induced cell death. When treated with higher concentration (4 μM) of IMB5043 in SMMC-7721 cells for 24 h, characteristic nuclear shape abnormalities (cavities formation in the center) were observed by staining nucleus (Fig 1D). For further investigation of the subcellular effects of IMB5043 on SMMC-7721 cells, transmission electron microscopy was performed to observe the ultrastructural changes in the treated cell compared with control. As shown in Fig 1E, with higher magnification, enlarged and swollen nucleus appeared and mitochondrial changes occurred in treated cells, including mitochondrial swelling and round shape appearance. This result indicates that IMB5043 can induce characteristic nucleus damage associated with mitochondria changes.

IMB5043 induced DSB and activated ATM-Chk2 pathway

DNA damages caused by IR, UV or radiomimetic agents result in rapid phosphorylation of the histone H2A family member, H2AX, at Ser139, also known as γ-H2AX. IMB5043 induced up-regulated expression of γ-H2AX in dose-dependent manner (Fig 2A and 2B, the original western blots of Fig 2A could been seen in S1 File).Then we examined DSBs with a neutral comet assay in cells treated with IMB5043. As shown, IMB5043 induced obvious DSBs in a dose-dependent manner: at the lowest concentration of 0.5 μM, the tail moment was approximately 12-fold of the control, and at 1μM and 2 μM the tail moments were up to 30-fold of the control, indicating that IMB5043 induced obvious double strand breakage (Fig 2C and 2D). Further, γH2AX foci analysis was visualized by immunofluorescence. In correlated with the DSBs detected by comet assays, γH2AX foci formation was increased in IMB5043-treated cells compared to control cells (Fig 2E and 2F).

Fig 2

IMB5043 leads to cell DNA breakage, γ-H2AX foci formation.

(A). p-H2AX was up-regulated by IMB5043 detected by Western blot. SMMC-7721 cells were treated with indicated doses of IMB5043 for 24 hours. (B). Quantification of p-H2AX expression treated with IMB5043 in SMMC-7721 cells. Data shown is means ± SD. **P<0.01. (C). Comet electrophoresis assays were performed to detect the DNA double strand breaks. SMMC-7721 cells were treated with indicated doses of IMB5043 for 6 hours. (D). Quantitative analysis of relative tail moment was performed with the comet analysis software. Data shown is means ± SD. **P<0.01. (E). γ-H2AX immunofluorescence foci was tested with γ-H2AX antibody conjugated with FITC. SMMC-7721 cells were treated with indicated doses of IMB5043 for 24 hours. (F). Quantification of γ-H2AX foci. Data shown is means ± SD. **P<0.01.

We further investigated which pathway was involved in the IMB5043 induced DSBs. As shown in Fig 3 (the original western blots could been seen in S1 File), IMB5043 induced phosphorylation of ATM, Chk2 and p53, not influenced the total expression of ATM, Chk2 and p53 protein. However, ATR-CHK1 pathway was shown no obvious change (S1 Fig). Our results show the ATM-CHK2 pathways play significant roles in response to the IMB5043-induced DNA damage.

Fig 3

IMB5043 induces DNA damage repair and activated ATM-Chk2 pathway.

SMMC7721 cells were treated with indicated doses of IMB5043 for 24 hours. Damage-associated proteins were detected by Western blot analysis and the quantitative analysis was displayed. Data shown is means ± SD. *P<0.05; **P<0.01.

IMB5043 caused G2/M arrest, and inhibited migration and invasion

The effect of IMB5043 on cell cycle progression was evaluated with PI staining and FACS analysis. As shown in Fig 4A and 4B, IMB5043 induced slightly G2/M arrest in a dose-dependent manner in SMMC-7721 cells. Accordingly, the G0/G1 cell population was decreased.

Fig 4

IMB5043 arrests G2/M phase and decreases the motility and invasion of SMMC-7721 cells.

(A). Cell cycle distribution was determined by flow cytometry after PI staining. Representative pictures from three experiments are shown. (B). Quantification of cell population in different phases of cell cycle treated with IMB5043. SMMC-7721 cells were treated with indicated doses of IMB5043 for 24 hours. Data represents the mean ± SD of three independent experiments. (C) IMB5043 decreases the motility of SMMC-7721 cells by wound closure assay. Representative pictures from three experiments were taken under microscopy after the incision and treated with 24 h, 48 h of 1 μM IMB5043 (x100). (D) Quantification of healing capability of SMMC-7721 cells after treated with IMB5043. *P<0.05. (E) IMB5043 decreases the migration of SMMC-7721 cells by transwell assay. Representative pictures from three experiments were taken under microscopy. SMMC-7721 cells were treated with the indicated concentrations of IMB5043 for 16 h. Cells that migrated through the transwell membrane were stained with hematoxylin (200×). (F) Quantification of migrated cells treated with IMB5043 in SMMC-7721 cells. Data shown is means ± SD of the three independent experiments. **P<0.01. (G) Quantification of invaded cells treated with IMB5043 in SMMC-7721 cells. *P<0.05; **P<0.01. Data represents the means ± SD of the three independent experiments.

We have also examined whether IMB5043 influences the motility and invasion of cancer cells. In a wound closure assay, the migration of SMMC-7721 cells was inhibited by 1 μM IMB5043 for 24 and 48 h (Fig 4C and 4D). Furthermore, the non-coated chamber assay was used for detecting cell migration and the matrigel-coated chamber which mimics the extracellular matrix condition was used for detecting cell invasion. The cells were treated with different concentrations of IMB5043 for 16 h. As shown in Fig 4E–4G, IMB5043 reduced the motility (Fig 4E and 4F) and invasion of SMMC-7721 cells (Fig 4G) in a dose-dependent manner.

IMB5043 induced apoptosis in SMMC-7721 cells

Annexin V-FITC/PI staining was used to investigate the apoptosis or necrosis of cancer cells treated with IMB5043. Annexin V-positive and PI-negative cells represent early apoptotic cells, and double positive cells are defined as necrotic or late apoptotic cells. As shown in Fig 5A and 5B, IMB5043 induced apoptosis of SMMC-7721 cells in a dose-dependent manner. The involvement of cysteine-aspartic proteases (caspases) in IMB5043-induced apoptosis was investigated. As shown in Fig 5C and 5D (the original western blots of Fig 5C could been seen in S1 File), the treatment of SMMC-7721 cells with IMB5043 induced the cleavage of executioner caspase-3, 7 and its downstream substrate poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP).

Fig 5

IMB5043 induces apoptosis of in SMMC-7721 cells.

(A). Flow cytometry analysis of apoptosis in SMMC-7721 cells treated with IMB5043. Representative pictures from three experiments is shown. (B). Quantification of apoptosis rate in SMMC-7721 cells treated with IMB5043. Cells were stained with FITC-Annexin V/PI. Apoptosis is determined by the percentages of FITC-Annexin V+ cells. The lower-right quadrant shows the early apoptotic cells, the upper-right quadrant shows necrotic or late apoptotic cells, and the upper-left quadrant shows necrotic cells or nuclear debris, and the lower-left quadrant shows healthy, viable cells. *P<0.05; **P<0.01. (C). Western blot showed the levels of apoptosis-related proteins including in SMMC-7721 cells. SMMC-7721cells were treated with IMB5043 at indicated concentrations for 24 h, then caspase-3, 7, and PARP was detected. Representative images of three independent experiments are shown. (D) The histogram shows the relative density of proteins shown in (C).Data represents the mean ± SD of three independent experiments. Results were derived from three independent experiments. *P<0.05; **P<0.01.

The gene expression profile analysis after IMB5043 treatment

The whole human genome microarray was used for further analysis of the differentially expressed genes in SMMC-7721 cells after 1 μM IMB5043 treatment for 24 h. A total of 49 genes were down-regulated and 41 genes were up-regulated by 1.5-fold between IMB5043-treated and control cells. The top10 up- and down-regulated genes in SMMC-7721 cells after treatment with IMB-5043 were list in Table in S1 Table. As shown in Fig 6A, in the top ten significant regulated terms of GO (Gene Ontology) biological process, 5 were related to cell death or apoptosis, 4 were related to metabolic process. In the top ten up-regulated KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) pathways, 5 were related to cancer, others were related to cell cycle as well as glutamine and glutamate metabolism (Fig 6B). In the top ten down-regulated pathways, 4 of them were related to cancer, other down-regulated pathways included regulation of actin cytoskeleton and endocytosis (Fig 6C). These data indicated that the genes affected by IMB5043 were highly related to cell death and cancer.

Fig 6

GO biological process and KEGG pathway analysis of the differentially express genes after IMB5043 treatment.

(A). The top ten down-regulated terms in GO biological process classification. (B). The top ten significant up-regulated pathways in KEGG pathway analysis. (C). The top ten significant down-regulated pathways in KEGG pathway analysis. SMMC-7721 cells were treated with 1 μM IMB5043 for 24 h. The total RNA is isolated and used for gene microarray analysis.

In vivo antitumor activity

In vivo antitumor efficacy of IMB5043 was evaluated in SMMC-7721 xenografts-bearing nude mouse model. The results showed that IMB5043 suppressed the growth of tumor xenograft in a dose-dependent manner (Fig 7A). All treated groups showed no obvious body weight loss (Fig 7B) and no change in behavior during the experiment. No histopathological lesions were found in the heart, lung, liver, small intestine, kidney, spleen, and femur bone marrow (Fig 7C). The experiment indicated that the effective dose of IMB5043 was well tolerated. The excised tumors were used for further analysis. Frozen sections of tumor tissue were prepared and γ-H2AX was detected with immunofluorescence staining. The results showed that IMB5043 significantly induced DNA double breakage and the increase of γ-H2AX-positive cells (Fig 7D), indicating an identical action mechanism as for the in vitro results.

Fig 7

In vivo antitumor activity.

(A). Tumor growing curves of human hepatoma cells SMMC7721 xenograft model in athymic mice (n = 6). IMB5043 was given on days 14–18 & 21–24. **P<0.01 (B). Body weight change of SMMC7721 xenograft-bearing mice. (C). Histopathological examination (hematoxylin and eosin stain) of mice treated with IMB5043 (25 mg/kg). No toxicological damage was found in the heart, lung, liver, small intestine, kidney, spleen, and femur bone marrow. (D). γ-H2AX immunofluorescence staining of frozen tumor sections from control groups and 25 mg/kg IMB5043 group. n = 6 mice per group.

Discussion

IMB5043 was identified as a novel compound based on cellular phenotyping screening and exerted higher cytotoxity to hepatocellular cells. In the hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines, we studied the antitumor activates of IMB5043 and its molecular mechanisms.

DNA is the prime target of a large number of chemotherapeutic drugs which activate DNA damage response, leading to inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing cell death [10]. DNA damage is important in determining the efficacy of these therapies. DNA damage triggers a series of signaling transduction network cascades promoting cellular survival, including DNA repair, cell cycle arrest, and autophagy [11].

In this study, we observed a quite different cell death response when treated IMB5043 with lower concentration or higher concentration, respectively. At the lower concentration (1 μM and 2 μM), a significant number of cells with the appearance of cells with large nuclei and intense chromatin regions mainly still gives at least 80–90% viability. While treated with higher concentration (4 μM), the cells appeared characteristic morphology exhibited a completely different cell death response with apparent nucleus alteration and cell necrosis, resulted in accumulation in G2/M-phase. According the alteration of cell phenotype treated with IMB5043, we hypothesis the alteration maybe lies in DNA damage caused by IMB5043. Consistent with the above postulation, DNA damage leading to DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) induced by IMB5043 were demonstrated by neutral comet assay and H2AX expression. Next, we detected the detail molecular mechanism of DNA damage induced by IMB5043. DNA damage is recognized by sensor proteins ATM and ATR, which phosphorylate and activate Chk and p53 to suppress cell proliferation [12].

ATM and ATR activate different pathways with a differential contribution to cellular response. As described in detail previously [13], cellular responses to DNA damage are coordinated primarily by two distinct kinase signaling cascades, the ATM-Chk2 and ATR-Chk1 pathways, which are activated by DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) and single-stranded DNA respectively. Our results indicated the ATM-Chk2 pathway was activated by lower dose concentration of IMB5043-induced DSBs. In the same condition, we also found the activation of p53. p53 is an important tumor suppressor and a target for anti-cancer drug development as well [14,15]. Thus, in our cases, Chk2, ATM, p53 and histone H2AX were activated by IMB5043 induced DSBs and served both for DNA repair and checkpoint responses as well as for induction of apoptosis.

The IMB5043 molecule contains two major parts, the pyridazinone and the thiophene moieties. As reported, pyridazinone derivatives have a wide range of biological activity, including the anti-cancer effects [16-18]. Recently, many literatures have focused on the design and synthesis of pyridazinone derivatives to develop new compounds with higher anti-cancer efficacy and verify the potential specific target [19-21]. Some studies have demonstrated that their specific mechanisms are acting as the inhibitors for important tumor targets such as p38, PFKFB3, PARP-1, C-Met or C-Met/HDAC [22-27]. The other bioactive moiety in the molecular structure of IMB5043 is a thiophene ring which occurs in many drugs [28]. Thiophene derivatives have been reported to show promising anti-cancer activity [29-34]. Thiophene compounds are activated to form thiophene sulfoxides by cytochrome P450-mediated oxidation [35]. These thiophene sulfoxides react with various nucleophilic residues of proteins, resulting in covalent binding to proteins. The coexistence of both pyridazinone and thiophene moieties in the molecule of IMB5043 might endow the latter with more potent efficacy and alternative mechanism of action. These similar compounds act on multiple targets which are just speculated whether IMB5043 also has similar effects. Further study will focus on check the possibility.

Our work provided the evidence that IMB5043 can cause DNA damage, verified by the induction of DNA breaks and nuclear foci positive for γ-H2AX, the activation of ATM and Chk2, and the up-regulation of p53 augments phosphorylation of the ATM-Chk2-p53 complex and induces the formation of nuclear foci in cells upon DNA damage. p53 and its signaling pathways have been reported in tumor metastasis and motility [36, 37]. Invasion of growth is the cancer’s characteristic biological phenotype, which is also the major reason causing poor prognosis. The gene expression analysis also revealed that IMB5043 actually modified actin filaments. The linkage of the cytoskeleton and the p53 response during the DNA damage response has been reported [38]. The present study found that IMB5043 can inhibit the motility and invasion of SMMC-7721 cells in a dose-dependent manner, which is essential for cancer treatment. This result is considered to relate to the original screening method which is based on mimetic epithelial-mesenchymal transition.

In conclusion, the results in the present study demonstrated the effect and novel mechanisms associated with cytotoxic property of IMB5043 on SMMC-7721 cells. Our studies show that IMB5043, a novel antitumor agent, can induce apoptosis, induce G2/M cell cycle arrest and inhibit invasion and metastasis of SMMC-7721 cells in vitro; IMB5043-mediated SMMC-7721 cell cycle arrest and induce cell death is partly through activating the DNA damage response, and then activates the ATM-CHK2-p53 axis intriguing the intrinsic apoptotic pathway and inhibits the mobility through regulation of the expression of p-P53. Therefore, our results may provide a new leading compound candidate for antitumor chemotherapy.

The ATR-Chk1 pathway was not effected by IMB5043.

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Top up- and down-regulated genes treatment with IMB-5043.

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The original western blots figures in the experiment.

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