Out-of-field doses in radiotherapy: Input to epidemiological studies and dose-risk models.

Out-of-field doses in radiotherapy have been increasingly studied in recent years because of the generally improved survival of patients who have received radiotherapy as part of their treatment for cancer and their subsequent risk of a second malignancy. This short article attempts to identify some current problems, challenges and opportunities for dosimetry developments in this field. Out-of-field doses and derived risk estimates contribute to general knowledge about radiation effects on humans as well as contributing to risk-benefit considerations for the individual patient. It is suggested that for input into epidemiological studies, the complete dose description (i.e. the synthesis of therapy and imaging doses from all the treatment and imaging modalities) is ideally required, although there is currently no common dosimetry framework which easily covers all modalities. A general strategy for out-of-field dose estimation requires development and improvement in several areas including (i) dosimetry in regions of steep dose gradient close to the field edge (ii) experimentally verified analytical and Monte Carlo models for out-of-field doses (iii) the validity of treatment planning system algorithms outside the field edge (iv) dosimetry of critical sub-structures in organs at risk (v) mixed field (including neutron) dosimetry in proton and ion radiotherapy and photoneutron production in high energy photon beams (vi) the most appropriate quantities to use in neutron dosimetry in a radiotherapy context and (vii) simplification of measurement methods in regions distant from the target volume.