Ethnobotanical knowledge of Apiaceae family in Iran: A review.

OBJECTIVE: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) family is one of the biggest plant families on the earth. Iran has a huge diversity of Apiaceae members. This family possesses a range of compounds that have many biological activities. The members of this family are well known as vegetables, culinary and medicinal plants. Here, we present a review of ethnobotanical uses of Apiaceae plants by the Iranian people in order to provide a comprehensive documentation for future investigations.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: We checked scientific studies published in books and journals in various electronic databases (Medline, PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus and Google Scholar websites) from 1937 to 2015 and reviewed a total of 52 publications that provided information about different applications of these plant species in human and livestock.
RESULTS: As a result of this review, several ethnobotanical usages of 70 taxa, 17 of which were endemic, have been determined. These plants were used for medicinal and non-medicinal purposes. The most commonly used parts were fruits, leaves, aerial parts and gums. The most common methods of preparation were decoction, infusion and poultice.
CONCLUSION: To our knowledge, this paper represents a comprehensive literature search of ethnobotanical uses of Apiaceae reported from Iran. This study highlights the rich traditional knowledge of this family that has remained in Iran. However, most of this knowledge survive only as memories from the past in the minds of the elderly, and will probably vanish in a few decades. Thus, we compiled these scattered data together in a single document for the next scientific works with ethnobotanical interests.

Introduction

The Apiaceae (previously known as the Umbel Family: Umbelliferae) is one of the largest plant families in the world. This family comprises approximately 450 genera and 3700 species worldwide (Pimenov and Leonov, 1993 ▶). The members of this family are well known as vegetables, culinary and medicinal plants such as Anethum graveolens (dill), Anthriscus cerefolium (chervil), Angelica spp. (angelica), Apium gravolence (celery), Carum carvi (caraway), Coriandrum sativum (coriander), Cuminum cyminum (cumin), Foeniculum vulgare (fennel), Ferula gummosa (galbanum),and Pimpinella anisum (anise), etc. Plants of this family usually possess a characteristic pungent or aromatic smell which is owing to the presence of essential oil or oleoresin (Singh and Jain, 2007 ▶). Members of Apiaceae possess various compounds with many biological activities. Some of the main properties are ability to induce apoptosis, antibacterial, hepatoprotective, vaso-relaxant, cyclooxygenase inhibitory and antitumor activities (Pae et al., 2002 ▶). For the family Apiaceae, Iran is a major center of diversification. In Iran, the Apiaceae family is represented by 121 genera and 360 species. Iran with unique climatic conditions has a large variety of plants, especially some unique endemic plants. From the endemism points of view, Apiaceae is an important family in the flora of Iran with 122 endemic taxa (Mozaffarian, 2007 ▶; Emami and Aghazari, 2011 ▶). Iran has a very honorable history in folk medicine, which dates back to the time of Babylonian-Assyrian civilization. One of the most significant ancient heritages is knowledge of people who tried over the millennia to discover useful plants for health improvement and each generation added their own experience to this tradition (Naghibi et al., 2005 ▶). Iran has a long history of medical practice and knowledge of plant remedies. The documentation of traditions of plant use in Iran was begun many years ago (Hopper and Field, 1937 ▶). Recently, several local ethnobotanical studies focusing on different parts of Iran have been published (Amin, 1992 ▶; Zargari, 1996 ▶; Ghorbani, 2005 ▶; Ahvazi et al., 2012 ▶; Amiri et al., 2012 ▶; Emami et al., 2012 ▶; Mosaddegh et al., 2012 ▶;Rajaei et al., 2012 ▶; Amiri and Joharchi, 2013 ▶; Safa et al., 2013 ▶; Dolatkhahi and Nabipour, 2014 ▶; Sadeghi et al., 2014 ▶; Sharififar et al., 2014 ▶; Tahvilian et al., 2014 ▶; khodayari et al., 2015 ▶). However, there are no distinct references on the ethnobotanical applications of this family in Iran and most of the publications and documents are scattered. Thus, we compiled these scattered data together in a single document for the next scientific works with ethnobotanical interests. In addition, we reported information on conservation and endemism status of some of these taxa in Iran.

Methods

We checked scientific studies in various electronic databases (Medline, Pubmed, Science Direct, Scopus, and Google Scholar websites) from 1937 to 2015. After a comprehensive search on the ethnobotanical aspects of Apiaceae family in Iran, we reviewed a total of 52 publications that provided information about different applications of these plant species in human and livestock. In this article, scientific and author names of plant species were checked for latest changes according to “The plant list” (http://www.theplantlist.org).

Results

In this review, ethnobotanical usages of 70 species, 17 of which were endemic, have been determined. Table 1 illustrates the results of this study. The plants used for various purposes in different parts of Iran were arranged in alphabetical order of their botanical names, with the relevant data. The information includes vernacular names, the part(s) used, the method of preparation, and medicinal and non-medicinal aspects along with literature sources. The species marked with an asterisk (*) were endemic species belonging to this family in Iran. The mostly used parts of the plants were fruits (21 species) followed by leaves (17 species), aerial parts (17 species), gum (13 species), root (12 species), stem (7 species), flowers (4 species), whole plant (4 species), seed (3 species) and rhizome (1 species) (Figure 1). The most common methods of preparation were decoction (20 species), followed by infusion (13 species), poultice (6 species), smoke (3 species), vapor (3 species), pill (2 species) and powder (2 species) (Figure 2).

Table 1

Importance of ethnobotanical applications of Apiaceae family in Iran

Reference cited	Non-medicinal uses	Medicinal uses (Livestock)	Medicinal uses (Human)	Preparation	Part used	Vernacular name	Scientific name	NO
Safa et al., 2013; Dolatkhahi et al., 2012;	-	-	Flatulency, Diuretic, Tonic, digestant, dyspepsia	-	Fruit	Khelale-dandan	Ammi majus L.	1
khodayari et al., 2015.	-	-	Tonic, treatment ofgingivitis, Digestive disorders, Carminative, appetizer	-	Aerial parts	Khelale-dandan	Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam.	2
Amiri and Joharchi, 2013; Ghorbani, 2005; Sharififar et al., 2010; Dolatkhahi et al., 2012; Sadeghi and Mahmood, 2014; Azizi and Keshavarzi, 2015; Dolatkhahi and Nabipour, 2014;	Culinary	-	Abortion, Anti-Dysmenorrhea, Galactogogue, Antihyperlipidemia, Carminative, Treatment of Diabetes, Digestive disorders, Infertility treatmentmen	Infusion	Fruit- Shoot	Shevid, Toragh	Anethum graveolens L.	3
khodayari et al.; 2015.	-	-	Treatment stomachache,Antihyperlipidemia,Stomachtonic	-	Leaf; root	Jenjil	Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm	4
Hopper and Field, 1937; Amin, 1992; Amiri and Joharchi, 2013; Ghorbani, 2005; Mardaninejad et al., 2013;	Culinary	-	Carminative, Tonic, Emmenagogue, Diuretic, Liver disorders, asthma, Loss of appetite, Rheumatic, Lumbago	Decoction	Fruit, Leaf; Stem	Karafs	Apium graveolens L.	5
Nazemiyeh et al., 2009.	used as a salad, vegetable and a food additive	-	-	-	Whole plant	Havij-e-kohi	Astrodaucus orientalis (L.) Drude	6
Amiri and Joharchi, 2013; Safa et al., 2013; khodayari et al., 2015; Sharififar et al., 2010; Amiri et al., 2012.	Flavoring	-	Obesity, Galactogogue, Flavoring, Carminative, Calmative, Appetizer, Indigestion,decongestant,childrenearache, newly delivered ladies recovery,cold-natured treatment, strengthening weaknesses	Decoction,powder	Fruit	Zireh-e-Siah	Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B.Fedtsch.	7
Rajaei et al., 2012.	-	-	Fever, dermal wound, Joint pain and inflammations	Decoction, poultice	Leaf; seed	-	Bupleurum falcatum L.	8
Mardaninejad et al., 2013; Sadeghi and Mahmood, 2014; Ghorbani et al., 2014.	Flavoring	Ectoparasites, Digestive and Gastric troubles, Skin diseases, Fever, Dehydration, Mouth infection	Obesity, Facilitate digestion, Sour stomach, Blood pressure,Diarrhea	Infusion	Fruit	Zireh-e-Shami	Carum carvi L.	9
Mosaddegh et al., 2012.	Eaten with rice	-	-	-	Young stem	Garkava,Chelghaba	Chaerophyllum macropodum Boiss.	10
Hopper and Field, 1937; Amin, 1992; Amiri et al., 2014; Ghorbani, 2005; Tahvilian et al., 2014; Mardaninejad et al., 2013; Azizi and Keshavarzi, 2015.	Flavoring,culinary	-	Relieve headache, relieve toothache jaundice, Acne, Treat of Flatulence, Appetizer, Aphrodisiac, Antiseptic,Gasteralgia, sore throat, Aromatic, Painkiller,Diabetescontrol,Gout control	Decoction	Fruit	Geshniz,Geshnij	Coriandrum sativum L.	11
Amiri and Joharchi, 2013.	-	-	Cholagogue, Depilator, Treat of Dermal Allergies	-	Root	Shokaran	Conium maculatum L.	12
Hopper and Field, 1937; Amin, 1992; Amiri and Joharchi, 2013; Sharififar et al., 2010; Koohpayeh et al., 2011;	Flavoring,culinary	Increase libido female camel, Anti-bloat in cattle and sheep	Relieve pain after child-bitth, Carminative, Treat of Colic, Galactogogue, Obesity, Digestive, Favoring, Antiasetic	Infusion	Fruit	Zireh-e-Sabz	Cuminum cyminum L.	13
Safarnejad et al., 2011.	Spice	-	Carminative	-	Fruit	Zireh-e-Sefid	Cuminum setifolium (Boiss.) Kos.-Pol.	14
Amiri and Joharchi, 2013; Sharififar et al., 2010; khodayari et al., 2015; Ghorbani et al., 2014.	Edible, culinary	Endoparasites	Diuretic, Emmenagogue,Disposalofworms,constipation, appetizerand Diuretic	-	Fruit, root	Havij	Daucus carota L.	15
Hopper and Field, 1937; Amin, 1992; Amiri and Joharchi, 2013; Rajaei et al., 2012; khodayari et al., 2015; Sadeghi and Mahmood, 2014; Koohpayeh et al., 2011.	-	Infectious wound healing and infection, Abscess in the sheep and goat	Indolent tumors, cystitis, Digestive, treat of colic, Treat of Furuncles, laxative, Expectoran, Asthma, Anthelmintic, Emmenagogue, Anticovulsion	Infusion, poultice	Gum, root	Kandal,Vasha, Ushegh	* Dorema ammoniacum D.Don	16
Rajaei et al., 2012; Mosaddegh et al.; 2012; Tahvilian et al., 2014; Koohpayeh et al., 2011; Mozaffarian, 2013.	Edible, use as vegetable, young stems are pickled	Infectious wound healing and infection in sheep	Asthma, Expectorant, Bronchitis, Making Gum,Parasites of digestivesystem, constipation, Burn healing	Fresh paste	Gum, young aerial part, root	Kal, Bilhar	* Dorema aucheri Boiss.	17
Sadeghi and Mahmood, 2014; Sadeghi et al., 2014.	-	-	Abortion, aphrodisiac, Scorch	Decoction, cataplasm	Gum	Oshtork	Dorema aureum Stocks	18
Delnavazi et al., 2015.	Used as a green vegetable	-	Diuretic, anti-diarrheal,treatment of bronchitis and catarrh	-	Leaves, gum-resin	-	Dorema glabrum Fisch. & C.A.Mey.	19
Rajaei et al., 2012; Sadeghi and Mahmood, 2014; Sharififar et al., 2014; Dolatkhahiand Nabipour, 2014.	-	-	Carminative, Irregularities of Menstruation, lactiferous	Decoction	Aerial parts, leaf, seed	Gicho,Goatk, Mashgak, Baghiz	Ducrosia anethifolia (DC.) Boiss.	20
Shafie-zadeh, 2002.	Spice	-	Stimulant and an invigorator of the stomach,diuretic,anti-cancer	-	Aerial parts	Phyaleh	* Echinophora cinerea (Boiss.) Hedge & Lamond	21
Tahvilian et al., 2014; Pirbaloutiet al., 2010; Abbasi et al., 2012.	Spice, flavoring with yogurt, culinary	-	Dissolves renal calculi, Anti aphthous (Mouth wash), antifungal	Decoction	Aerial parts	Khosharizeh	* Echinophora platyloba DC.	22
Mosaddegh et al., 2012; Abbasi et al., 2012; Sharififar et al., 2014.	-	-	Constipation, palliative, antifungal, arthritis pain reliever	Decoction	Aerial parts, root	Zole,kharzul, Chichagh	Eryngium billardieri Delile	23
Sharififar et al., 2014.	-	-	Painkiller	-	Aerial parts	Zole-e-Khorasani	Eryngium bungei Boiss.	24
Amiri and Joharchi, 2013; Tahvilian et al., 2014.	-	-	Treat of Vitiligo, Cut, Wound,Carminative, Febrifuge, Hemostatic	Decoction	Leaves,fruit	GhazYaghi,Paghaze	Falcaria vulgaris Bernh.	25
Emami et al., 2012; Safa et al., 2013; Mosaddegh et al., 2012; khodayari et al., 2015; Sharififar et al., 2010; Sadeghi and Mahmood, 2014; Sajjadi et al., 2011.	Culinary	-	Stomachache,Anthelmintic, Antihemorrhoid, Cough, Tremor,epilepsy, treatment of gastritis	Decoction	Gum	Anghuzeh, Heltit, Gane-bu	* Ferula assa-foetida L.	26
Zargari, 1996.	-	-	Anticonvulsant, tonic, anti-hysteric, decongestant, treatment ofneurological disorders, stomach ache	-	Resin	-	Ferula badrakema Koso-Pol.	27
Bahmani et al., 2012; Pirbalouti et al., 2013.	-	Appetizer	Anti-septic	Smoking, Sodden	Stem, leaves,inflorescence	Kame,Anio	* Ferula behboudiana (Rech.f. & Esfand.) D.F.Chamb.	28
Zargari, 1996.	-	-	Anticonvulsant, tonic, anti-hysteric, decongestant, treatment ofneurological disorders, stomach ache	-	Root	-	Ferula diversivittata Regel & Schmalh.	29
Amiri and Joharchi, 2013.	-	-	Anthelmintic, Treat of Colic,Emmenagogue	-	Gum	Anghuzeh	Ferula foetida (Bunge) Regel	30
Hopper and Field, 1937; Amiri and Joharchi, 2013; Ghorbani, 2005; Mosaddegh et al., 2012; khodayari et al., 2015; Amiri et al., 2012.	Powdered fruits, stem aspickle	-	Appetizer, treatment of wounds, liver cysts, Anthelmintic, Anticatarrhal, Antiallergic, Dyspepsia, Emmenagogue	Decoction, poultice	Fruit, gum, root	Barijeh,Angiyun,Ghasni	Ferula gummosa Boiss.	31
Pirbalouti et al., 2013.	-	-	Anti-septic	smoking	Stem, leaves,inflorescence	Komeh, Komieh	Ferula haussknechtii H.Wolff ex Rech.f.	32
Rajaei et al., 2012.	-	-	Stomachache, Carminative	Hydrodistilation	Stem, rhizome		* Ferula hezarlalehzarica Ajani	33
Amiri et al., 2012.	-	-	Indigestion and anthelmintic	-	Leaves		* Ferula latisecta Rech.f. & Aellen	34
Khodayari et al., 2015.	-	-	Anti-nausea, anti-stomach acid	-	Leaves, stem	Chevil	* Ferula macrocolea Boiss.	35
Ghorbani, 2005; Sharififar et al., 2014.	-	-	Cough, asthma, respiratory disorders, migraine, expectorant	Demulcent, vapor, pill	Seed, gum	Ejek-ghamaghi, kal	Ferula oopoda (Boiss. & Buhse) Boiss.	36
Abbasi et al., 2012; Ahmadi et al., 2009; Sajjadi et al., 2011.	-	-	Anticonvulsants, Tonic, constipation,Back pain treatment	Decoction	Shoot, fruit	Kama	Ferula ovina (Boiss.) Boiss.	37
Hopper and Field, 1937; Ahvazi et al., 2012; Sahranavard et al., 2014; Sharififar et al., 2014.	Steam cooked,Spicy, cooking, edible	-	Lumbago, rheumatism, gout, sinusitis, pododynia, backache,Treat epilepsy, laxative, antitussive	Poultice, vapor	Stems, roots, leaves, gum	Sakbinaj, Jarand	* Ferula persica Willd.	38
Ghorbani, 2005; Sharififar et al., 2010.	-	-	Asthma, cough, dermal wounds,stomach pain	Demulcent, vapor, pill	Gum	Ghamagh-mumi, Anghozeshirin	Ferula szowitziana DC.	39
Mosaddegh et al., 2012; Ahmadi et al., 2009; Pirbalouti et al., 2013;	As aromatic ingredient, as flavor in animal oil, spice and air fresher	Relieve flatulence	Anti-septic,renal pain	-	Leaves	Chavil, Chavir	Ferulago angulata (Schltdl.) Boiss.	40
Rajaei et al., 2012.	-	-	Dermal wounds	Poultice	Gum	Garchik	* Ferulago carduchorum Boiss. & Hausskn. ex Boiss.	41
Hopper and Field, 1937; Amin, 1992; Amiri and Joharchi, 2013; Ghorbani, 2005; Mosaddegh et al., 2012; khodayari et al., 2015; Sharififar et al., 2010; Sadeghi and Mahmood, 2014;	Edible, flavoring	-	Relieve toothache, Dysentery, Cold, Diuretic, kidney infections, Galactogogue, Digestive, Bronchitis, Appetizer, Antiacid, Flatulence,hypnotic	Decoction	Aerial parts, Fruit	Raajuneh, Razianeh	Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	42
Mozaffarian, 2013.	As a local vegetable, as a local spice, flavoring	-	-	-	Aerial parts	Zolang	Froriepia subpinnata (Ledeb.) Baill.	43
Ahvazi et al., 2012; Yazdanshenas et al., 2015; Sonboli et al., 2005.	Edible, cooking some foods,as a local vegetable and flavoring in soups and foods	-	Tonic, carminative and relief stomachache	Infusion	Leaves	Jafarikohi, Samoureh	Grammosciadium platycarpum Boiss. & Hausskn.	44
Mosaddegh et al., 2012.	-	-	Diabetes, hypertension	-	Aerial parts	Kelos-e kuhi	* Haussknechtia elymaitica Boiss.	45
Ghorbani, 2005.	Flavoring	-	Digestive disorders	-	Seed	Jengel-ghamaghi	* Heracleum gorganicum Rech.f.	46
Amiri and Joharchi, 2013; Ahvazi et al., 2012; khodayari et al., 2015.	Spice, flavoring	-	Treat of Hiccup, Appetizer, Flavoring, Carminative, Anthelmintic, Stomach Tonic,Tremor, migraine, headache caused by sinusitis	Infusion, decoction	Fruit, flowers	Golpar	Heracleum persicum Desf. ex Fisch.,C.A.Mey. & Avé-Lall.	47
Tahvilian et al., 2014.	-	-	Dissolves renal calculi, cornicide	Decoction	Leaf, root	Baraza	Johrenia aromatic Rech.f.	48
Pirbalouti et al., 2010; khodayari et al., 2015.	Edible as vegetable, Flavoring with yogurt	-	Indigestion, rheumatism, Gastric ulcer, anti-diabetes, pain, cough,Irritation, Sedative	-	Whole plant	Kelus,karafs-e-Bakhtyari	* Kelussia odoratissima Mozaff.	49
Safaet al., 2013; Mosaddegh et al., 2012; Dolatkhahi and Nabipour, 2014.	-	-	Bile stone repellent, Diarrhea	Infusion	Aerial parts	Alaf-e kaaji, Zireh-e-vahshi	Lagoecia cuminoides L.	50
Amiri and Joharchi, 2013; Rajaei et al., 2012.	Flavoring with yogurt, use as vegetable	-	Nerve Diseases, Heart Tonic, Indigestion,Blood sugar, Asthma, diuretic	Infusion	Fruit, leaf, root	Angedane-roomi, Karafse-kuhi	Levisticum officinale W.D.J.Koch	51
Mosaddegh et al., 2012; khodayari et al., 2015; Dolatkhahi et al., 2012; Bahmani et al., 2012; Dolatkhahi and Nabipour, 2014.	Culinary, use as vegetable	Diarrhea	Relieve thirst in children, indigestion, diarrhea, abdominal pain and feverish conditions, Stomach pain, cold therapy	Decoction	Aerial parts	Moshkurak, Tighnak, Den	* Oliveria decumbens Vent.	52
Pirbalouti et al., 2013.	-	-	Anti-septic	Smoking	Stem, leaves,inflorescence	Alafshir	Opopanax hispidus (Friv.) Griseb.	53
Amiri and Joharchi, 2013; Mardaninejad et al., 2013	Edible as vegetable, flavoring	-	Emmenagogue, Diuretic, Carminative, Kidney Disorders, Bladder disease, Gout, Blood pressure, Blood sugar, Varicocele	Infusion	Fruit	Jafari	Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss	54
Zarshenas et al., 2013.	-	-	Diuretic, Cough, Meningitis,Paralysis, Renal stone,Respiratory ulcers	-	Gum	Bokhurolekrad	Peucedanum officinale L.	55
Alavi et al., 2005.	-	-	Treatment of cold	-	Fruit	Razianekoohi	Peucedanum ruthenicum M.Bieb.	56
Mirdeilami et al., 2011.	Edible	-	-	-	Stem	Ghaziaghi	Physospermum cornubiense (L.) DC.	57
Hopper and Field, 1937; Amin, 1992; Pirbalouti et al., 2013; Amiri and Joharchi, 2013; Sadeghi and Mahmood, 2014.	Culinary use	-	Treat of Flatulence, Anthelmintic,Treat of Colic, Antacid, Stomachache, Antidiarrhea	Infusion	Fruit	Vavehshing, Anison(Badianroomi)	Pimpinella anisum L.	58
Sharififar et al., 2014.	-	-	Treatment of flatulency	-	Aerial parts	Sakbinj	* Prangos cheilanthifolia Boiss.	59
Pirbalouti et al., 2013; khodayari et al., 2015; Azizi and Keshavarzi, 2015; Barani and Rahimpour, 2014; Ghorbani et al., 2014.	As a natural dye	Treatment of thick and louse (Ruminants)		Decoction	Aerial parts	Bale har, Ginoo, Marzah	Prangos ferulacea (L.) Lindl.	60
Sajjadi et al., 2011.	-	-	Tonic,Carminative	-	Fruit, flower	Jashir-e-sakhrehrooy	Prangos uloptera DC.	61
Sajjadi et al., 2011.	Flavoring	-	Disinfectants	-	Aerial parts	Shen jar	* Psammogeton canescens Vatke	62
Safa et al., 2013.	-	-	Back, leg and other part muscles pain	-	Leaves, stem	Sagdandan	Pycnocycla aucherana Decne. ex Boiss.	63
Mosaddegh et al., 2012.	-	-	Palpitation, blood coagulation, body pains	Decoction	Aerial parts	Suzanak	Scandix pecten-veneris L.	64
Sharififar et al., 2014.	-	-	Stomach tonic, Has a hot temper	-	Whole plant	Badian-e-koohi	Scandix stellata Banks& Sol.	65
Sahranavard et al., 2014;	-	-	Treat epilepsy	-	Whole parts	Sisalius	Seseli tortuosum L.	66
Mosaddegh et al., 2012; Ahvazi et al., 2012; Tahvilian et al., 2014; Pirbalouti et al., 2013; Bahmani et al., 2012; Ahmadi et al., 2009.	Roots and stems as a food to be consumed raw or cooked	Urinary retention	Urinary ducts and prostate problems, gynaecologicaldisease,Indigestion and stomachic,Bitter aromatic, hot effects, tonic,anti- helmintic,Antipyretic, anti-worm tooth	Infusion, Sodden	Aerial parts, seeds, root	Ovandol, Pinoume, Gonour	Smyrnium cordifolium Boiss.	67
Pirbalouti et al., 2010.	Spice and condiment	-	Anti-septic	-	Fruit	Goolpar,Kereson	Tetrataenium lasiopetalum (Boiss.) Manden.	68
Amiri and Joharchi, 2013; Sharififar et al., 2010.	Flavoring	-	Carminative, Anthelmintic, Antidiarrhea, Treat of Colic, Antacid, Galactogogue	Infusion	Fruit	Zenyan(Khordaneh), Kasrak	Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague	69
Mosaddegh et al., 2012.	-	-	Urinary duct problems	Infusion	Aerial parts	Darehjouyi	Turgenia latifolia (L.) Hoffm.	70

The species marked with an asterisk are endemic species belonging to Apiaceae family in Iran

Figure 1

Proportional presentation of plant parts used

Figure 2

Mode of preparations and their percentages

The importance of ethnobotanical aspects

Ethnobotanical investigations generally result in the documentation of a rather limited set of well-documented beneficial plants, mostly medicinal, but also those known to be poisonous or used in nourishment (Ghorbani et al., 2006 ▶). In this paper, the members of Apiaceae family were used for various purposes, however we categorized their uses into three main groups including: 1) medicinal plants used in human; 2) medicinal plants used in livestock and 3) non-medicinal aspects.

Medicinal plants used for humans

From a total of 70 species belonging to this family, 66 species were reported to be used for medicinal purposes in human. Among them, the most frequently quoted species in this category were: Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B.Fedtsch., Cuminum cyminum L., Dorema aucheri Boiss., Dorema ammoniacum D.Don, Ducrosia anethifolia (DC.) Boiss., Ferula assa-foetida L., Ferula gummosa Boiss., Ferulago angulata (Schltdl.) Boiss., Oliveria decumbens Vent., Prangos ferulacea (L.) Lindl. and Smyrnium cordifolium Boiss. Most reported medicinal uses were for treatment of gastro-intestinal, respiratory system, urinary systemmetabolic system, gynaecological and skin disorders, and also they were used as antiseptic, anthelmintic, calmative, antipyretic, galactogogue and appetizer agents.

Medicinal plants used for livestock

Ten species have been recorded to have medicinal uses in veterinary. Among them, the most commonly used plants were: Carum carvi L. fruits, which were consumed for ectoparasites, digestive troubles, skin diseases, fever and mouth infection in livestock. The fruits of Cuminum cyminum L. were used to increase libido in female camels and as an anti-bloat agent in cattle and sheeps. Gum and root of Dorema ammoniacum D.Don were used to treat infectious wound infection and abscess in sheep and goat. Gum and root of Dorema aucheri Boiss. Were used for treatment of infectious wounds and infection in sheep. Aerial parts of Oliveria decumbens Vent. were used for treatment of diarrhea. Aerial parts and root of Smyrnium cordifolium Boiss. were used for treatment of urinary retention.

Plants with non-medicinal uses

From the 70 taxa recorded in this article, 30 species had both medicinal and non-medicinal applications. Apart from these, four species including Astrodaucus orientalis (L.) Drude, Chaerophyllum macropodum Boiss., Froriepia subpinnata (Ledeb.) Baill. and Physospermum cornubiense (L.) DC. had no medicinal effect and were only used for other purposes. In totally, thirty-four species have been reported for miscellaneous uses including edible, making pickles, as natural dyes and as flavors in salad, soup, etc. As stated in Table 1, the most cited species for edible uses were Anethum graveolens L., Coriandrum sativum L., Cuminum cyminum L., Ferulago angulata (Schltdl.) Boiss., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Heracleum persicum Desf. ex Fisch., Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss, Pimpinella anisum L., Prangos ferulacea (L.)Lindl. and Smyrnium cordifolium Boiss. Many of these taxa were used all over the country. However, some other species, such as Dorema aucheri Boiss., Kelussia odoratissima Mozaff. and Oliveria decumbens Vent. were only used in a small area. Most of these taxa were used as wild vegetables. These species with much narrower distribution were exclusively used in Iran, and therefore could be considered as ‘typical Iranian wild edibles’. It is sometimes hard to know whether a particular sample was wild or cultivated. For example, some species, such as Kelussia odoratissima Mozaff. were only native to certain parts of Iran, although they were cultivated in some other regions of the country. Kelus or karafs-e-Bakhtyari (Kelussia odoratissima Mozaff.) was widely used as a wild vegetable and flavoring. It could be found in local markets and beside the roads by local people. Some species such as Echinophora platyloba DC., Kelussia odoratissima Mozaff. and Levisticum officinale W. D. Koch were used as a flavor in yoghurt. Chaerophyllum macropodum Boiss. was cooked and eaten with rice. Ferula angulata Schltdl. was added as a flavor to animal oil. The young leaves and branches of Dorema aucheri Boiss. were used for making a locally famous pickle called “Bilhar Pickle” and used as vegetable in a local soup. Non-edible uses have also been recorded. For instance, aerial parts of Prangos ferulacea (L.) Lindl. were used as a dye (yellow color).

Comments on some most cited species

Our results indicated that medicinal species such as Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B.Fedtsch., Dorema ammoniacum D.Don, Ducrosia anethifolia (DC.) Boiss., Ferula assa-foetida L., Ferula gummosa Boiss., Oliveria decumbens Vent., Prangos ferulacea (L.) Lindl. and Smyrnium cordifolium Boiss. were mentioned by many studies. Among Iranian people, the use of Zireh(Persian name) is very popular. According to Table 1, five kinds of Zireh including Zireh-e-Siah (Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B.Fedtsch.), Zireh-e-Shami (Carum carvi L.), Zireh-e-Sabz (Cuminum cyminum L.), Zireh-e-Sefid (Cuminum setifolium (Boiss.) Kos.-Pol.) and Zireh-e-vahshi (Lagoecia cuminoides L.)were used in Iran. The most remarkable one that has the highest number of reports was Bunium persicum (Boiss.) B.Fedtsch., which is also known as Zireh-e-koohi in Iran. In Iranian folk medicine, this species was applied as as a galactogogue, carminative, calmative, appetizer, decongestant agent and to treat indigestion, children earache, newly delivered ladies recovery, cold-natured conditions and weaknesses. In addition, it was used as a flavor. The genus Ferula comprises about 170 species distributed from central Asia to northern Africa. It represented by 30 taxa, 20 of which are endemic to Iran. The popular Persian name for most of these species is “Koma” (Pimenov and Leonov, 1993 ▶; Emami and Aghazari, 2011 ▶; Mozaffarian, 2007). Most species of this genus have been used in traditional medicine. The most striking of them, with the highest number of citations were Ferula assa-foetida L. and Ferula gummosa Boiss. The most popular Persian names for Ferula assa-foetida L. were Anghuzeh, Heltit and Gane-bu. It was claimed to be highly effective on stomachache, cough, epilepsy, tremor and epilepsy and is used as an anthelmintic and antihemorrhoid agent and also in the treatment of gastritis. Ferula gummosa Boiss., commonly known as Barijeh or Ghasni, was used for liver cysts and dyspepsia, and as an anthelmintic, anticatarrhal, antiallergic, appetizer and emmenagogue agent. The genus Dorema is represented by 7 species in Iran, 2 of which are endemic. The most famous of them, with the highest number of citations were Dorema ammoniacum D.Don and Dorema aucheri Boiss. The most popular persian names for Dorema ammoniacum D.Don were Kandal, Vasha and Ushegh. It was traditionally used for the treatment of different diseases, such as cystitis, digestive, colic, furuncles, and asthma and as an anthelmintic, emmenagogue and anticovulsion agent. In Iranian traditional medicine, Dorema aucheri Boiss. was used against asthma, bronchitis, parasites of digestive system, constipation and burns. The genus Oliveria is represented only by a single species, namely Oliveria decumbens Vent., in Iran. It was traditionally used for the treatment of different diseases such as indigestion, diarrhea, abdominal pain, feverish conditions, stomach pain and cold and to relieve thirst in children.

Credibility of plant species used in ethnobotany

Due to the interdisciplinary nature of ethnobotany, few individuals can be expected to be experts in all components of the cross-disciplinary research that ethnobotany represents in botany, pharmacology, medicine, chemistry, anthropology and linguistics. Therefore, it needs a close collaboration of multidisciplinary teams of researchers who are experts in botany, pharmacology, medicine and anthropology (Alexiades and Sheldon, 1996 ▶). Unfortunately, in Iran, botanists are not really involved in this field of inquiry, even though botany is one of the basic fields involved in interdisciplinary field of ethnobotany. Most of the studies in Iran have been done by pharmacognosists and anthropologists. Improvement of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology in Iran needs more involvement of botanist in these fields (Ghorbani et al., 2006). Sometimes, the studies of ethnobotany, can comprise a few incorrect identifications. Botanists attempt to record a much lower number of erroneous ethnobotanical taxa. Reports on plants which do not exist in Iran may be a result of plant misidentification. For example, in the literature review of this family in Iran, we found that Eryngium campestre L. has been recorded for ethnobotanical uses (Mirdeilami et al., 2011 ▶). However, according to Flora Iranica, this species does not exist in Iran (Mozaffarian, 2007 ▶). Therefore, we have removed this plant from the list (Table 1). In some cases, identical names are given to different species, or various names to the same species. This is particularly important for taxa that are marketed. Owing to some morphological similarities of the plant parts and their improper identification by the consumers and herbal plant sellers and lack of a standard identification system, the crude medicinal plants and their parts are often adulterated or substituted in commerce which may result in the loss of their efficacy. For instance, Zosima absinthifolia Link adulterated or substituted instead of Levisticum officinale W.D.J.Koch in some commercial samples. Identification and recognition of medicinal plants are very important because the adulterants, although belonging to the same genus, do not possess the medicinal properties of the drug. For example, Bunium cylindricum is being mixed with real Zireh-e-siah (Bunium persicum) and is sold in the market but with less quality and efficacy. Correct identification of plant species is the foundation of safe use of herbal medicines and products. Therefore, in order to ensure safety, therapeutic potency and efficacy of lucrative and medicinal plants, correct identification, authentication, and elimination of adulteration are essential and the taxa should only be authenticated by a panel of experts including taxonomists (Joharchi and Amiri, 2012 ▶).

Comments on conservation status of some notable species

Some of species have a narrow distribution and collection from wild populations will threaten these taxa. Furthermore, various parts of plants should only be collected in such a manner that ensures their continued presence, both in specific collection locations and across the landscape (Meeker et al., 1993 ▶). Harvesting from wild populations and destructive collecting methods, such as removal of subterranean and aerial parts which are essential to the survival of the plants, could be serious threats and often lead to vanish this species. Various species of Apiaceae family are monocarpic, so that only once produce flowers during the life cycle and only reproduce through seeds such as Ferula spp. Excessive harvest of roots and flowers of these species are dangerous, and must be avoided, especially in the case of endemic and endangered species. Of the 70 plant species included in this review, 17 taxa were listed as endemic. Some of these species such as Dorema aucheri Boiss., Echinophora cinerea (Boiss.) Hedge &Lamond, Ferula hezarlalehzarica Ajani and Kelussia odoratissima Mozaff. are narrow-range endemics and occur only in a few specialized niches. Heracleum gorganicum Rech.f. is an endemic species of Iran which is widely and heavily harvested from the wild and this could be a big threat for these species (Ghorbani, 2005 ▶). Dorema aucheri Boiss. is considered as an endemic species which is heavily collected. Excessive collection of these plants has caused a notable decrease in populations of the plant in the area. Many individuals of young plants are harvested to be sold (Mosaddegh et al., 2012 ▶). Kelussia odoratissima Mozaff. is another endemic species with a narrow distribution range in Iran which is subjected to heavy use by inhabitants of the region. The local people are using the whole plant for different purposes. Excessive collection of it has led to the decrease of the plant in the area. Some rare species such as Levisticum officinale and Dorema ammoniacum have been threatened as herbalists and traders hire the local people for collecting these species due to the economic purposes. In addition, local people sometimes sell these medicinal plants in the local market for making money (Rajaei et al., 2012 ▶). Many of these plants are potentially endangered and vulnerable taxa. Collecting of plants from the wild led to the impoverishment of various plant communities in many areas, especially for plants that their roots or flowers are used, and that harvesting should be controlled. So, sustainable harvesting and domestication of these plants is a need for conservation which would guarantee these renewable resources for the future. Special consideration should be given to promising plants in the area and protect them from extinction by excessive utilization.

Conclusion

This paper clearly represents a deep-rooted ethnobotanical heritage of Apiaceae family in Iran. Traditional knowledge of Iranian peoples is based on oral tradition passed through several generations and most of this information survives only in the memory of the elderly people and is now in danger of vanishing. This review illustrates the necessity of ethnobotanical works in various regions of Iran to record all the folkloric knowledge practiced among indigenous people and attempts to compile these scattered data in order to help maintaining cultural traditions. The best and quickest way to species selection for pharmacological and phytochemical works is by reviewing the ethnobotanical literature. This highlights the significance of such investigations. Based on the data of this paper some taxa should be given priority for further phytochemical and pharmacological studies, including: Dorema glabrum Fisch. & C.A.Mey., Echinophora cinerea (Boiss.) Hedge & Lamond, Johrenia aromatic Rech.f., Opopanax hispidus (Friv.) Griseb. and Pycnocycla aucherana Decne. ex Boiss. Some species are good candidates for future research, specially in the case of endemic species. The flora of Iran is rich in endemic species of Apiaceae (122 taxa), many of which have been poorly investigated. These taxa are unique and potentially interesting as a basis for future research works. To our knowledge, there is no literature on some notable species that have been traditionally used in Iran such as Azilia eryngioides (Pau) Hedge & Lamond, Ferula macrocolea Boiss., Haussknechtia elymaitica Boiss., Heracleum gorganicum Rech.f., Kalakia marginata (Boiss.) Alava, etc. Identification of plants in each area provides a better understanding of restorable natural resources and their applications. Ethnobotanical efforts should continue, particularly in regions that have received less attention. It is strongly believed that detailed data as introduced in this paper on the ethnobotany of Apiaceae, provides detailed evidence for the use of these plants for different purposes. Regarding the rich background of traditional knowledge of these species, it seems there are still a large number of unaccomplished researches, which provides baseline data for subsequent pharmacological and phytochemical investigations.