Migratory Birds as Global Dispersal Vectors.

Propagule dispersal beyond local scales has been considered rare and unpredictable. However, for many plants, invertebrates, and microbes dispersed by birds, long-distance dispersal (LDD) might be regularly achieved when mediated by migratory movements. Because LDD operates over spatial extents spanning hundreds to thousands of kilometers, it can promote rapid range shifts and determine species distributions. We review evidence supporting this widespread LDD service and propose a conceptual framework for estimating LDD by migratory birds. Although further research and validation efforts are still needed, we show that current knowledge can be used to make more realistic estimations of LDD mediated by regular bird migrations, thus refining current predictions of its ecological and evolutionary consequences.