ET-1 Promotes Differentiation of Periodontal Ligament Stem Cells into Osteoblasts through ETR, MAPK, and Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathways under Inflammatory Microenvironment.

Periodontitis is a kind of chronic inflammatory disease that affects the tooth-supporting tissues. ET-1 is related to periodontitis and involved in the regulation of cytokines, but the mechanisms remain unclear. The aim of this study is to investigate how ET-1 affects proinflammatory cytokine expression and differentiation in human periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs). PDLSCs were isolated from the periodontal ligament tissues of periodontitis patients and then treated with ET-1 (1, 10, or 100 nM) for 12 h, 24 h, or 72 h. The osteogenic potential of PDLSCs was tested using ALP staining. TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 levels were evaluated by ELISA and western blot. Runx2, OCN, and COL1 mRNA and western levels were detected by RT-PCR and western blot, respectively. To examine the signaling pathways and molecular mechanisms involved in ET-1-mediated cytokine expression and osteogenic differentiation, ETR pathway, MAPKs pathway, Wnt/β-catenin pathway, and Wnt/Ca(2+) pathway were detected by RT-PCR and western blot, respectively. ET-1 promoted differentiation of PDLSCs into osteoblasts by increasing secretion of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in a dose- and time-dependent manner. ET-1 also increased expression of Runx2, OCN, and COL1. ET-1 promotes differentiation of PDLSCs into osteoblasts through ETR, MAPK, and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways under inflammatory microenvironment.

1. Introduction

Periodontitis is a set of chronic inflammatory disorders of the tissues surrounding the teeth leading to the destruction of the alveolar bone and teeth loss [1]. Periodontitis caused an increase in the proliferation of human periodontal ligament stem cells and a decrease in the commitment to the osteoblast lineage [2].

Endothelin-1 (ET-1) is a 21-amino acid peptide with multifunctional regulation. Endothelin-1 is the most potent and predominant endothelin isoform in the human cardiovascular system and is now recognized to play a pivotal role in the regulation of vascular tone [3]. ET-1 stimulates neutrophils to release elastase, activates mast cells, and stimulates monocytes to produce a variety of cytokines such as interleukin- (IL-) 1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), which play important roles in the initiation and progression of periodontal disease [4].

It has recently been found that Porphyromonas gingivalis, one of the major pathogens responsible for causing periodontitis [5], stimulates the expression of ET-1, with upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines and intercellular adhesion molecule, in the bronchial epithelial cell line HEp-2 and KB cells [6]. The expression of ET-1 was strongly enhanced in gingival tissue and endothelial cells during periodontal inflammation [7].

The periodontal ligament (PDL) is a special connective tissue located between the alveolar bone and the tooth cementum. Previous studies showed that PDL cells play a role as producers of cytokines and chemokines in periodontal inflammation [8]. ET-1 dose- and time-dependently induced the production of proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 by H-hPDL; ET-1 may be involved in the inflammatory process of periodontitis, at least in part, by stimulating proinflammatory cytokine production via the MAPK pathway in hPDL cells [9].

PDLSCs have a dynamic role in maintaining periodontal homeostasis and are responsible for remodelling and regeneration of periodontal tissues. However, how ET-1 affects differentiation and proinflammatory cytokine expression in PDLSCs remains unclear.

The primary aim of this study is to investigate how ET-1 affects proinflammatory cytokine expression and differentiation in human periodontal ligament stem cells (PDLSCs) from periodontitis patients. Therefore, the present study is designed to investigate the effects of ET-1 on the differentiation and expression of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in PDLSCs and put emphasis on exploring the possible roles of ETR pathway, MAPKs pathway, Wnt/β-catenin pathway, and Wnt/Ca2+ pathways in ET-1-induced differentiation and cytokine expression.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Isolation and Culture of PDLSCs

After obtaining informed consent, PDLCs were isolated from the periodontal ligament tissues of periodontitis patients (n = 3 referred to 3 independent cultures from different individuals). Periodontal ligament cells (PDLCs) were scraped from the middle third of healthy, noncarious premolar tooth roots (n = 3 referred to 3 independent cultures from different individuals). The cells were enzymatically digested for 45 min at 37°C in 0.1% collagenase type I (Sigma-Aldrich Co., St. Louis, MO, USA) and maintained in alpha minimal essential medium (αMEM; Gibco, Life Technologies Co., Grand Island, NY, USA), containing 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS; Gibco), 200 mM L-glutamine (Invitrogen, Life Technologies Co.), 100 U/mL penicillin, and 100 mg/mL streptomycin sulfate as the basic medium. The resultant cell suspension was then seeded in 25 mL flasks (Falcon, BD Biosciences, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA) and incubated at 37°C in humidified air with 5% CO2. Confluent cells were trypsinized and serially subcultured; on the third passage, cells were stained with vimentin antibody for characterization. PDLCs at two to four passages were used for immunomagnetic microbead isolation of PDLSCs. Human PDLSCs were isolated using the CD146 microbead kit, with an LS Column and a MidiMACS separator (Miltenyi Biotec, Bergisch Gladbach, Germany). In brief, PDLCs (1 × 107 cells) were transferred into a 15 mL conical tube and centrifuged at 300 ×g for 10 min. Then, we checked the positive markers, CD73, CD105, and CD90, and negative markers, CD34, CD45, CD14, CD11b, and CD79a, by flow cytometry.

2.2. Vimentin Staining

Before using PDLSCs for experiments, the cells were assessed for their “stemness” by stem cell marker vimentin. The cultures were fixed in 4% formalin for 10 minutes, rinsed gently in PBS, and incubated in a humid chamber, first with blocking reagents for 1 hour and then with selected primary antibody vimentin (Santa Cruz Biotechnology), overnight at 4°C for detection of markers for breast cancer. The antibody was diluted (1 : 100) according to the manufacturer's recommendations. We used the standard protocol for the biotin-streptavidin staining kit (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) [10].

2.3. Alkaline Phosphatase Staining

The osteogenic potential of PDLSCs was tested using ALP staining [11]. For ALP staining, after induction, cells were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde and stained with a solution of 0.25% naphthol AS-BI phosphate and 0.75% Fast Red FRV using an ALP kit according to the manufacturer's protocol [12].

2.4. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)

TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 concentrations in cell-free supernatants were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN) according to the manufacturer's protocols [13].

2.5. Western Blot Assay

Total proteins were extracted from cells by sonication in RIPA buffer containing protease inhibitors (Roche). After quantification of protein concentrations using the BCA protein assay kit (Thermo Scientific, Rockford, IL), the protein samples (20 μg/lane) were separated by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and transferred onto polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membranes (Millipore). After being blocked with 5% fat-free dry milk, the membranes were incubated with anti-TNF alpha antibody (ab66579), anti-IL1 beta antibody (ab2105), IL-6 (D3K2N) Rabbit mAb, anti-GAPDH antibody, RUNX2 (D1L7F) Rabbit mAb cst#12556, anti-osteocalcin antibody (ab93876), anti-endothelin A receptor antibody (ab76259), anti-endothelin B receptor antibody (ab39960), phospho-p44/42 MAPK (Erk1/2) (Thr202/Tyr204) (D13.14.4E) XP Rabbit mAb cst#4370, p44/42 MAPK (Erk1/2) (137F5) Rabbit mAb (Cst 4695), phospho-SAPK/JNK (Thr183/Tyr185) (G9) Mouse mAb (Cst 9255), SAPK/JNK antibody cst#9252, phospho-p38 MAPK (Thr180/Tyr182) (D3F9) XP Rabbit mAb (Cst 4511), p38 MAPK antibody cst #9212, Axin1 (C95H11) Rabbit mAb cst#2074, APC antibody cst #2504, GSK-3β (27C10) Rabbit mAb cst#9315, β-catenin (L87A12) Mouse mAb cst #2698, TCF1 (C63D9) Rabbit mAb cst2203, LEF1 (C12A5) Rabbit mAb cst2230, anti-dishevelled/Dvl1 antibody (ab106844), anti-IP3KC antibody (ab188007), anti-CaMKII (phospho-T286) antibody (ab32678), anti-NLK antibody (ab97642), and anti-p38 MAP kinase (341–360) Rabbit pAb (cst 506123), respectively. Target bands were detected using a horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody and developed using Pierce enhanced cemiluminescencet (ECL) (Thermo Scientific, Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA, USA), followed by quantifying using the Image Quant TM LAS 4000 (GE Healthcare). Band intensity was normalized to that of GAPDH and expressed as a relative ratio. Semiquantifications were performed using Image J program (National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA) [14].

2.6. Quantitative RT-PCR

Total RNA was isolated using total RNA Kit (R6934, Omega Bio-tech Inc., GA, USA) following the manufacturer's instructions. cDNA was synthesized in cDNA Synthesis Kit (K1622, Fermentas International Inc., Canada) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The relative levels of target gene mRNA transcripts were determined by quantitative RT-PCR using the SYBR Green system and specific primers on the LightCycler system (Roche). The sequences of primers are shown in Table 1. Each PCR was performed in triplicate in a final volume of 20 μL solution: 10 μL of SYBR Green dye, 1 μL of diluted cDNA products, 0.2 μM of each paired primer, and 8.6 μL deionized water. The PCR amplification was performed in triplicate at 95°C for 10 minutes and was subjected to 40 cycles of 95°C for 15 s, 60°C for 30 s. The last cycle for dissociation of SYBR Green probe was 15 s at 95°C, 30 s at 60°C, and 15 s at 95°C. The relative levels of each gene's mRNA transcripts were calculated by normalizing to the GAPDH and expressed as a relative ratio [15].

Table 1

The human primer sequences used for real-time PCR.

Target gene	Primers sequences		Size (bp)
Runx2	Forward	5′-TGGTTACTGTCATGGCGGGTA-3′	101
	Reverse	5′-TCTCAGATCGTTGAACCTTGCTA-3′
OCN	Forward	5′-CACTCCTCGCCCTATTGGC-3′	112
	Reverse	5′-CCCTCCTGCTTGGACACAAAG-3′
COL1	Forward	5′-GAGGGCCAAGACGAAGACATC-3′	140
	Reverse	5′-CAGATCACGTCATCGCACAAC-3′
GAPDH	Forward	5′-ACAACTTTGGTATCGTGGAAGG-3′	101
	Reverse	5′-GCCATCACGCCACAGTTTC-3′
ETRA	Forward	5′-TCGGGTTCTATTTCTGTATGCCC-3′	143
	Reverse	5′-TGTTTTTGCCACTTCTCGACG-3′
ETRB	Forward	5′-GTCCCAATATCTTGATCGCCAG-3′	132
	Reverse	5′-AAGGCACCAGCTTACACATCT-3′
ERK1/2	Forward	5′-CTACACGCAGTTGCAGTACAT-3′	157
	Reverse	5′-CAGCAGGATCTGGATCTCCC-3′
JNK	Forward	5′-TGTGTGGAATCAAGCACCTTC-3′	146
	Reverse	5′-AGGCGTCATCATAAAACTCGTTC-3′
p38	Forward	5′-CCCGAGCGTTACCAGAACC-3′	136
	Reverse	5′-TCGCATGAATGATGGACTGAAAT-3′
Axin	Forward	5′-GGTTTCCCCTTGGACCTCG-3′	157
	Reverse	5′-CCGTCGAAGTCTCACCTTTAATG-3′
APC	Forward	5′-AAGCATGAAACCGGCTCACAT-3′	108
	Reverse	5′-CATTCGTGTAGTTGAACCCTGA-3′
GSK3β	Forward	5′-GGCAGCATGAAAGTTAGCAGA-3′	180
	Reverse	5′-GGCGACCAGTTCTCCTGAATC-3′
β-catenin	Forward	5′-CCTATGCAGGGGTGGTCAAC-3′	95
	Reverse	5′-CGACCTGGAAAACGCCATCA-3′
TCF/LEF	Forward	5′-CGAAGGTCAAGCTATGAGGACA-3′	141
	Reverse	5′-ATCTGCGATGCTGGCAATCT-3′
Dv1	Forward	5′-GCAAACTCTCACTGTATAGGCAA-3′	152
	Reverse	5′-AGTACCATCAAATTCACGGGTC-3′
IP3 kinase C	Forward	5′-AGCCTGGAGAATTGCTGACTC-3′	181
	Reverse	5′-TCAGACTCGTCGAAAGAAGAGG-3′
CaMK	Forward	5′-ACCCGTTTCACCGACGACTA-3′	96
	Reverse	5′-CTCCTGCGTGGAGGTTTTCTT-3′
NLK	Forward	5′-CCAACCTCCACACATTGACTATT-3′	117
	Reverse	5′-ACTTTGACATGATCTGAGCTGAG-3′
P38 MAKP	Forward	5′-CTGTTGGACGTTTTTACACCTGC-3′	158
	Reverse	5′-AGACCTCGGAGAATTTGGTAGA-3′

2.7. Statistical Analysis

Results are expressed as mean ± SEM. One-way ANOVA was performed using SPSS 17.0. Tests of equality of variance were carried out and post hoc tests were also performed. P value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. P < 0.05; P < 0.01; P < 0.001.

3. Results

3.1. Isolation and Identification of PDLSCs

PDLCs at two to four passages were used for immunomagnetic microbead isolation of PDLSCs. The cultured cells were spindle-shaped (Figure 1(a)) and expressed a positive reaction to antibodies against vimentin (Figure 1(b)). Streaming results (Figure 1(c)) combined with the morphologic and biologic characteristics and the site from which the sample was collected, these data confirmed that the cultured cells were PDLSCs.

Figure 1

PDLSCs identified by morphologic analysis, immunocytochemical staining, and flow cytometry. (a) Morphology of PDLSCs (×100). (b) PDLSCs positive for vimentin in cytoplasm (streptavidin biotin peroxidase complex stain, original magnification ×200) (c).

3.2. ET-1 Promoted Differentiation of PDLSCs into Osteoblasts by Increasing Expression of Runx2, OCN, and COL1

The osteogenic potential of PDLSCs was tested using ALP staining. Increased ALP activity is a marker of osteoblast differentiation. The staining showed that ET-1 promoted differentiation of PDLSCs into osteoblasts (Figure 2(a)). Increased expressions of Runx2, OCN, and COL1 are markers of osteoblast differentiation. As shown in Figure 2, Runx2, OCN, and COL1 mRNA levels gradually increased with the exposure of ET-1, peaking at day 21 (P < 0.05). At each time point (7 d, 14 d, and 21 d), the expressions of Runx2 (Figure 2(b)), OCN (Figure 2(c)), and COL1 (Figure 2(d)) mRNAs were induced at a dose-dependent manner (1, 10, and 100 nM). The effect of ET-1 on osteogenic differentiation of PDLSCs was further verified by assessing the change in Runx2, OCN, and COL1 expression of proteins associated with osteogenesis. Runx2 (Figures 2(e) and 2(f)), OCN (Figures 2(e) and 2(g)), and COL1 (Figures 2(e) and 2(h)) protein expressions levels were coincident with the mRNA changes.

Figure 2

ET-1 promoted differentiation of PDLSCs into osteoblasts by increasing expression of Runx2, OCN, and COL1. The osteogenic potential of PDLSCs was tested using ALP staining. Increased ALP activity is a marker of osteoblast differentiation. The staining showed that ET-1 promoted differentiation of PDLSCs into osteoblasts (a). Runx2, OCN, and COL1 mRNA levels gradually increased with the exposure of ET-1, peaking at day 21 (P < 0.05). At each time point (7 d, 14 d, and 21 d), the expression of Runx2 (b), OCN (c), and COL1 (d) mRNAs was induced at a dose-dependent manner (1, 10, and 100 nM). The effect of ET-1 on osteogenic differentiation of PDLSCs was further verified by assessing the change in Runx2, OCN, and COL1 expression of proteins associated with osteogenesis. Runx2 ((e), (f)), OCN ((e), (g)), and COL1 ((e), (h)) protein expressions levels were coincident with the mRNA changes. Each bar represents the mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). P < 0.05; P < 0.01; P < 0.001.

3.3. ET-1 Increased Secretion of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in Dose- and Time-Dependent Manner

To investigate whether ET-1 could affect proinflammatory cytokine expression in PDLSCs, TNF-α (Figure 3(a)), IL-1β (Figure 3(b)), and IL-6 (Figure 3(c)) expression were measured by ELISA. At each time point (12 h, 24 h, and 72 h), the secretion of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in PDLSCs was induced at a dose-dependent manner (1, 10, and 100 nM). ET-1 stimulation (100 nM) showed maximal induction at each time point. Also, the more secretion of proinflammatory cytokine was observed at the longer exposure time to ET-1. The effects of ET-1 on protein expression of TNF-α (Figures 3(d) and 3(e)), IL-1β (Figures 3(d) and 3(f)), and IL-6 (Figures 3(d) and 3(g)) in PDLSCs were measured by Western Blotting. In agreement with the ELISA results, ET-1 induced TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in a dose-dependent and time-dependent manner. The stimulatory effects on protein expression reached a peak at 72 hours after stimulation.

Figure 3

ET-1 increased secretion of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in dose- and time-dependent manner. TNF-α (a), IL-1β (b), and IL-6 (c) expression were measured by ELISA. The effects of ET-1 on protein expression of TNF-α ((d), (e)), IL-1β ((d), (f)), and IL-6 ((d), (g)) in PDLSCs were measured by Western Blotting. In agreement with the ELISA results, ET-1 induced TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in a dose-dependent and time-dependent manner. The stimulatory effects on protein expression reached a peak at 72 hours after stimulation. Each bar represents the mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). P < 0.05; P < 0.01; P < 0.001.

3.4. ET-1 Promoted Differentiation of PDLSCs through ETR Pathway

To examine signal transduction in ET-1-induced differentiation and cytokine expression, endothelin A receptor (ETRA) and endothelin B receptor (ETRB) mRNA and protein expressions were examined after 12 h, 1 d, 3 d, 7 d, 14 d, and 21 d 10 nM ET-1 treatment. The effect of ET-1 on ETRA mRNA expression level increased with increasing treatment time, peaking at 21 d (Figures 4(a) and 4(d)). A time-dependent increase in ETRA protein level was also observed (Figures 4(b) through 4(f)). The stimulatory effects on ETRB mRNA and protein levels were detected.

Figure 4

ET-1 promoted differentiation of PDLSCs through ETR pathway. The effect of ET-1 on ETRA mRNA expression level increased with increasing treatment time, peaking at 21 d ((a) and (d)). A time-dependent increase in ETRA protein level was also observed ((b) through (f)). The stimulatory effects on ETRB mRNA and protein levels were detected. Each bar represents the mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). P < 0.05; P < 0.01; P < 0.001.

3.5. ET-1 Promoted Differentiation of PDLSCs through MAPKs Pathway

It was previously reported that p38 and ERK1/2 MAPKs play important roles in the osteogenic differentiation pathway [16]. Thus, we wondered whether p38 and ERK1/2 MAPKs would be involved in ET-1-induced osteogenic differentiation of PDLSCs. RNA and proteins were extracted after PDLSCs had been treated with 10 nM ET-1 for 12 h, 24 h, and 72 h and 7 d, 14 d, and 21 d. And the levels of each protein (p38, phosphor-p38, ERK1/2, phosphor-ERK1/2, JNK, and phosphor-JNK) were measured. RT-PCR showed no difference in ERK, JNK, and p38 after ET-1 treatment (Figures 5(a) and 5(d)). Western Blot analysis indicated that exposure of the cells to ET-1 effectively increased the levels of phosphor-ERK1/2, phosphor-JNK, and phosphor-p38 without altering the total amounts of these proteins. This result indicated that activation of the MAPK pathway correlated with osteogenic differentiation (Figures 5(b), 5(c), 5(e), and 5(f)).

Figure 5

ET-1 promoted differentiation of PDLSCs through MAPKs pathway. RT-PCR showed no difference in ERK, JNK, and p38 after ET-1 treatment ((a) and (d)). Western Blot analysis indicated that exposure of the cells to ET-1 effectively increased the levels of phosphor-ERK1/2, phosphor-JNK, and phosphor-p38 without altering the total amounts of these proteins ((b), (c), (e), and (f)). Each bar represents the mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). P < 0.05; P < 0.01; P < 0.001.

3.6. ET-1 Promoted Differentiation of PDLSCs through Canonical Wnt/β-Catenin Pathway

The canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway is not only one of the most important signaling pathways governing bone homeostasis but also involved in the progression of osteoporosis [17]. Adenomatous polyposis coli (Apc) is the critical intracellular regulator of β-catenin turnover. Thus, whether Wnt/β-catenin pathway would be involved in ET-1-induced osteogenic differentiation of PDLSCs was tested. RNA and proteins were extracted after PDLSCs had been treated with 10 nM ET-1 for 12 h, 24 h, and 72 h and 7 d, 14 d, and 21 d. And the levels of each mRNA (Axin, APC, GSK3β, β-catenin, and TCF/LEF) were measured. Upregulation of Axin, APC, β-catenin, and TCF/LEF mRNA levels was observed (Figure 6(a)). Western Blot analysis indicated that exposure of the cells to ET-1 effectively increased the levels of Axin, APC, β-catenin, TCF, and LEF, whereas it downregulated the phosphor-GSK3β (Figures 6(b) and 6(c)). These results indicated that activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway correlated with osteogenic differentiation.

Figure 6

ET-1 promoted differentiation of PDLSCs through Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Upregulation of Axin, APC, β-catenin, and TCF/LEF mRNA levels was observed (a). Western Blot analysis indicated that exposure of the cells to ET-1 effectively increased the levels of Axin, APC, β-catenin, TCF, and LEF, whereas it downregulated the phosphor-GSK3β ((b) and (c)). Each bar represents the mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). P < 0.05; P < 0.01; P < 0.001.

3.7. Wnt/Ca2+ Pathway Was Not Involved in the Differentiation of PDLSCs Promoted by ET-1

Cisd2-deficient murine induced pluripotent stem cells showed dysregulation of osteogenic differentiation [18]; recent studies have indicated that Cisd2 may be involved in Ca2+ homeostasis [19]. Therefore, we further explored whether Wnt/Ca2+ pathway was involved in the differentiation of PDLSCs promoted by ET-1. RNA and proteins were extracted after PDLSCs had been treated with 10 nM ET-1 for 12 h, 24 h, and 72 h and 7 d, 14 d, and 21 d. And the levels of each mRNA (Dv1, IP3 kinase C, CaMK, NLK, and p38 MAPK) were measured. None of the above genes showed any change after ET-1 treatment (Figure 7(a)), nor did the protein levels (Figures 7(b) and 7(c)). These results indicated that Wnt/Ca2+ pathway was not involved in the differentiation of PDLSCs promoted by ET-1.

Figure 7

Wnt/Ca2+ pathway was not involved in the differentiation of PDLSCs promoted by ET-1. RNA and proteins were extracted after PDLSCs had been treated with 10 nM ET-1 for 12 h, 24 h, and 72 h and 7 d, 14 d, and 21 d. And the levels of each mRNA (Dv1, IP3 kinase C, CaMK, NLK, and p38 MAPK) were measured. None of the above genes showed any change after ET-1 treatment (a), nor did the protein levels ((b) and (c)). These results indicated that Wnt/Ca2+ pathway was not involved in the differentiation of PDLSCs promoted by ET-1. Each bar represents the mean ± standard deviation (n = 3).

4. Discussion

Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects the tooth-supporting tissues [20]. Periodontitis caused an increase in the proliferation of human periodontal ligament stem cells and a decrease in the commitment to the osteoblast lineage. Periodontitis is a globally prevalent inflammatory disease which causes the destruction of the periodontal structures (i.e., alveolar bone, periodontal ligament, and root cementum) and potentially leads to tooth loss [21].

PDLSCs were recently used to regenerate lost tooth-supporting apparatus [22]. Further, regeneration potential of endogenous PDLSCs was impaired in periodontal ligament with chronic periodontitis [23]. PDLSCs play an important role, not only in the maintenance of the periodontium, but also in promoting periodontal regeneration. Interestingly, PDLSCs are a heterogeneous cell population, including cells at different stages of differentiation and lineage commitment [24].

ET was originally discovered as a potent vasoconstrictive peptide from endothelial cells [25]. Previous studies demonstrated that ET-1 can induce the production of IL-1b, IL-6, and TNF-α, which exert a variety of proinflammatory effects, from human bronchial epithelial cell lines and macrophages [26]. However, the mechanism by which ET-1 regulates cytokine expression and differentiation in PDLSCs has not been reported.

Our results showed that ET-1 promoted differentiation of periodontitis patients' PDLSCs into osteoblasts, and ET-1 increased secretion of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in dose- and time-dependent manner. The balance between bone formation and bone resorption is maintained by osteoblasts and osteoclasts, and an imbalance in this bone metabolism leads to osteoporosis [27]. Moreover, ET-1 increased expression of Runx2, OCN, and COL1, which are osteogenic markers [28].

There are currently two distinct human ET receptors known as ETRA and ETRB. In drug-induced gingival overgrowth, ET-1 mRNA expression was significantly higher in patients with CsA-induced gingival overgrowth (P < 0.001) than in patients with periodontitis and the controls. ETRA mRNA was expressed more than the ETRB in all examined samples [29]. To examine signal transduction in ET-1-induced differentiation and cytokine expression, endothelin A receptor (ETRA) and endothelin B receptor (ETRB) mRNA and protein expressions were examined after 12 h, 1 d, 3 d, 7 d, 14 d, and 21 d 10 nM ET-1 treatment. And the results showed that ET-1 promoted differentiation of PDLSCs through ETR pathway.

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are serine/threonine-specific protein kinases and play an important role in the intracellular signaling that occurs in response to extracellular stimuli. MAPKs are divided into three subclasses: extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38 kinase [30]. ERK1/2 is particularly activated by mitogens and growth factors acting through receptor protein tyrosine kinases or Gq protein-coupled receptor agonists such as ET-1. JNK and p38 are potently activated by cellular stresses, including oxidative stress and proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and TNF-α. The MAPKs control the activity of many transcription factors. ERK1/2 is particularly associated with cell proliferation. JNK and p38 are associated with the immune response and p38 probably propagates an inflammatory response by, at least in part, increasing production of cytokines, including IL-1β and TNF-α [31]. Pathway analyses identify MAPKs pathway as an important mediator in ET-1-induced osteogenesis.

The activation of Wnt/β-catenin pathway, which is a common signaling pathway regulating the cell differentiation, prevents skeletal aging and inflammation [32]. Apc bridges Wnt/β-catenin and BMP signaling during osteoblast differentiation of KS483 cells [33]. The canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway governs the lineage commitment of bipotential SPC into osteoblasts or chondrocytes [34]. Pathway analyses identify canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway as another important mediator in ET-1-induced osteogenesis.

In conclusion, we found that ET-1 promoted differentiation of PDLSCs into osteoblasts, and ET-1 increased secretion of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in dose- and time-dependent manner. ET-1 increased expression of Runx2, OCN, and COL1. ET-1 promotes differentiation of periodontal ligament stem cells into osteoblasts through ETR, MAPK, and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways under inflammatory microenvironment.