Nikos Stratakis1, Theano Roumeliotaki2, Emily Oken3, Henrique Barros4, Mikel Basterrechea5, Marie-Aline Charles6, Merete Eggesbø7, Francesco Forastiere8, Romy Gaillard9, Ulrike Gehring10, Eva Govarts11, Wojciech Hanke12, Barbara Heude6, Nina Iszatt7, Vincent W Jaddoe9, Cecily Kelleher13, Monique Mommers14, Mario Murcia15, Andreia Oliveira5, Costanza Pizzi16, Kinga Polańska14, Daniela Porta10, Lorenzo Richiardi16, Sheryl L Rifas-Shiman3, Greet Schoeters17, Jordi Sunyer18, Carel Thijs14, Karien Viljoen13, Martine Vrijheid19, Tanja G M Vrijkotte20, Alet H Wijga21, Maurice P Zeegers22, Manolis Kogevinas23, Leda Chatzi2. 1. Department of Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece2Section of Complex Genetics, Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Faculty of Health, Medici. 2. Department of Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece. 3. Obesity Prevention Program, Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute, Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts. 4. Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Predictive Medicine and Public Health, University of Porto Medical School, Porto, Portugal5Epidemology Research Unit, Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal. 5. Public Health Division of Gipuzkoa, Basque Government; Health Research Institute, Biodonostia, San Sebastián, Spain7Centros de Investigación Biomédica en Red Epidemiología y Salud Pública, Spain. 6. Centre for Research in Epidemiology and Biostatistics Paris Sorbonne Cité, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Early Origin of the Child Development and Health Team, Villejuif, France9Université Paris Descartes, Villejuif, France. 7. Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway. 8. Department of Epidemiology, Lazio Regional Health System, Rome, Italy. 9. Generation R Study Group, Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, Netherlands. 10. Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands. 11. Environmental Risk and Health, Flemish Institute for Technological Research, Mol, Belgium. 12. Department of Environmental Epidemiology, Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine, Lodz, Poland. 13. School of Public Health, Physiotherapy, and Population Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland. 14. Department of Epidemiology, CAPHRI School for Public Health and Primary Care, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, Maastricht, Netherlands. 15. Centros de Investigación Biomédica en Red Epidemiología y Salud Pública, Spain18Fundación para el Fomento de la Investigación Sanitaria y Biomédica de la Comunitat Valenciana-Universitat Jaume I, Universitat de València Joint Research Unit of Epidemiology. 16. Cancer Epidemiology Unit, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin and Reference Centre for Epidemiology and Cancer Prevention in Piemonte, Turin, Italy. 17. Environmental Risk and Health, Flemish Institute for Technological Research, Mol, Belgium21University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark. 18. Centros de Investigación Biomédica en Red Epidemiología y Salud Pública, Spain22Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology, Barcelona, Spain23Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain. 19. Centros de Investigación Biomédica en Red Epidemiología y Salud Pública, Spain22Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology, Barcelona, Spain24Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain. 20. Department of Public Health, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 21. Centre for Nutrition, Prevention and Health Services, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, Netherlands. 22. Section of Complex Genetics, Department of Genetics and Cell Biology, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, Maastricht, Netherlands27CAPHR. 23. Centros de Investigación Biomédica en Red Epidemiología y Salud Pública, Spain28Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology, Barcelona, Spain29Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques, Barcelona, Spain30National School of Public Health, A.
Abstract
IMPORTANCE: Maternal fish intake in pregnancy has been shown to influence fetal growth. The extent to which fish intake affects childhood growth and obesity remains unclear. OBJECTIVE: To examine whether fish intake in pregnancy is associated with offspring growth and the risk of childhood overweight and obesity. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Multicenter, population-based birth cohort study of singleton deliveries from 1996 to 2011 in Belgium, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, and Massachusetts. A total of 26,184 pregnant women and their children were followed up at 2-year intervals until the age of 6 years. EXPOSURES: Consumption of fish during pregnancy. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: We estimated offspring body mass index percentile trajectories from 3 months after birth to 6 years of age. We defined rapid infant growth as a weight gain z score greater than 0.67 from birth to 2 years and childhood overweight/obesity at 4 and 6 years as body mass index in the 85th percentile or higher for age and sex. We calculated cohort-specific effect estimates and combined them by random-effects meta-analysis. RESULTS: This multicenter, population-based birth cohort study included the 26,184 pregnant women and their children. The median fish intake during pregnancy ranged from 0.5 times/week in Belgium to 4.45 times/week in Spain. Women who ate fish more than 3 times/week during pregnancy gave birth to offspring with higher body mass index values from infancy through middle childhood compared with women with lower fish intake (3 times/week or less). High fish intake during pregnancy (>3 times/week) was associated with increased risk of rapid infant growth, with an adjusted odds ratio (aOR) of 1.22 (95% CI, 1.05-1.42) and increased risk of offspring overweight/obesity at 4 years (aOR, 1.14 [95% CI, 0.99-1.32]) and 6 years (aOR, 1.22 [95% CI, 1.01-1.47]) compared with an intake of once per week or less. Interaction analysis showed that the effect of high fish intake during pregnancy on rapid infant growth was greater among girls (aOR, 1.31 [95% CI, 1.08-1.59]) than among boys (aOR, 1.11 [95% CI, 0.92-1.34]; P = .02 for interaction). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: High maternal fish intake during pregnancy was associated with increased risk of rapid growth in infancy and childhood obesity. Our findings are in line with the fish intake limit proposed by the US Food and Drug Administration and Environmental Protection Agency.
IMPORTANCE: Maternal fish intake in pregnancy has been shown to influence fetal growth. The extent to which fish intake affects childhood growth and obesity remains unclear. OBJECTIVE: To examine whether fish intake in pregnancy is associated with offspring growth and the risk of childhood overweight and obesity. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Multicenter, population-based birth cohort study of singleton deliveries from 1996 to 2011 in Belgium, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, and Massachusetts. A total of 26,184 pregnant women and their children were followed up at 2-year intervals until the age of 6 years. EXPOSURES: Consumption of fish during pregnancy. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: We estimated offspring body mass index percentile trajectories from 3 months after birth to 6 years of age. We defined rapid infant growth as a weight gain z score greater than 0.67 from birth to 2 years and childhood overweight/obesity at 4 and 6 years as body mass index in the 85th percentile or higher for age and sex. We calculated cohort-specific effect estimates and combined them by random-effects meta-analysis. RESULTS: This multicenter, population-based birth cohort study included the 26,184 pregnant women and their children. The median fish intake during pregnancy ranged from 0.5 times/week in Belgium to 4.45 times/week in Spain. Women who ate fish more than 3 times/week during pregnancy gave birth to offspring with higher body mass index values from infancy through middle childhood compared with women with lower fish intake (3 times/week or less). High fish intake during pregnancy (>3 times/week) was associated with increased risk of rapid infant growth, with an adjusted odds ratio (aOR) of 1.22 (95% CI, 1.05-1.42) and increased risk of offspring overweight/obesity at 4 years (aOR, 1.14 [95% CI, 0.99-1.32]) and 6 years (aOR, 1.22 [95% CI, 1.01-1.47]) compared with an intake of once per week or less. Interaction analysis showed that the effect of high fish intake during pregnancy on rapid infant growth was greater among girls (aOR, 1.31 [95% CI, 1.08-1.59]) than among boys (aOR, 1.11 [95% CI, 0.92-1.34]; P = .02 for interaction). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: High maternal fish intake during pregnancy was associated with increased risk of rapid growth in infancy and childhood obesity. Our findings are in line with the fish intake limit proposed by the US Food and Drug Administration and Environmental Protection Agency.
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