The Succinate Receptor GPR91 Is Involved in Pressure Overload-Induced Ventricular Hypertrophy.

BACKGROUND: Pulmonary arterial hypertension is characterized by increased pressure overload that leads to right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH). GPR91 is a formerly orphan G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that has been characterized as a receptor for succinate; however, its role in RVH remains unknown. METHODS AND
RESULTS: We investigated the role of succinate-GPR91 signaling in a pulmonary arterial banding (PAB) model of RVH induced by pressure overload in SD rats. GPR91 was shown to be located in cardiomyocytes. In the sham and PAB rats, succinate treatment further aggravated RVH, up-regulated RVH-associated genes and increased p-Akt/t-Akt levels in vivo. In vitro, succinate treatment up-regulated the levels of the hypertrophic gene marker anp and p-Akt/t-Akt in cardiomyocytes. All these effects were inhibited by the PI3K antagonist wortmannin both in vivo and in vitro. Finally, we noted that the GPR91-PI3K/Akt axis was also up-regulated compared to that in human RVH.
CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that succinate-GPR91 signaling may be involved in RVH via PI3K/Akt signaling in vivo and in vitro. Therefore, GPR91 may be a novel therapeutic target for treating pressure overload-induced RVH.

Introduction

Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a progressive disorder that affects the pulmonary vasculature [1]. This disorder is characterized by a progressive increase in pulmonary vascular resistance due to various degrees of adventitia, media, and intima remodeling of the distal pulmonary arteries [2]. Due to this increased resistance, the right ventricular (RV) afterload gradually increases and results in right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH), which is closely related to the survival of patients with PAH [3]. When RVH occurs, it is always accompanied by increased cell size, inflammation, and fetal gene reexpression [4] and is characterized by thickened ventricle walls and myofibrillar reorganization [5]. These above-mentioned properties greatly influence RV contraction and diastole function and eventually lead to right heart failure (HF), which is a leading cause of PAH mortality worldwide [6,7].

In the citric acid cycle in the mitochondrial matrix, succinate is formed from succinyl-CoA by succinyl-CoA synthetase and is subsequently converted by succinate dehydrogenase to fumarate in the mitochondria; however, succinate can be released to the extracellular space due to local energy metabolism disturbances [8-10]. Under RVH, additional capillaries are formed in the heart to meet the increasing oxygen requirements of the RV; however, the density of the capillaries cannot meet the needs of the RV, and the lower oxygen extraction reserve ultimately makes oxygen utilization less efficient despite the higher demand. Thus, the citric acid cycle is inhibited, and succinate accumulates under conditions linked to an insufficient oxygen supply in the RVH [11,12]. Recently, succinate was demonstrated to act as a signaling molecule relevant to immunity [13], hyperglycemia [14], hypertension [15] and ischemic liver injury [16] via a specific receptor, G-Protein-Receptor 91 (GPR91). Succinate was also demonstrated to function in cardiomyocyte apoptosis, which is closely tied to RVH, while the role of succinate in the RVH remains unclear [17].

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest family of cell-surface proteins and are activated by a diverse range of extracellular stimuli or ligands such as amino acids, peptides, lipids, nucleotides and photons [18,19]. In 2004, the formerly orphan Gi- and Gq-coupled cell surface receptor GPR91 was found to specifically bind the citric acid cycle intermediate succinate [20]. Recently, one study demonstrated the presence of GPR91 mRNA and protein in freshly isolated preparations of ventricular cardiomyocytes [17]. Here, we report a novel role for succinate and its receptor GPR91 in pressure overload-induced RVH.

In this study, we show an unknown function for succinate and its receptor GPR91 in pressure overload-induced RVH. Our findings introduce a new paradigm of signaling with metabolic intermediates and the possibility of other yet unexplored metabolite signaling pathways.

Methods

Experimental Design

All procedures followed the recommendations of the ARRIVE guidelines of Animal Research: Reporting in Vivo Experiments (J Physiol. 2010) and were approved by the ethics committee of Nanjing Medical University. Wortmannin (St. Louis, MO, USA) was dissolved in saline, stored in aliquots at -20°C and protected from light. Succinate (Yingye, Shanghai, China) was dissolved in saline, stored in aliquots at -20°C and protected from light. Rats were randomly divided into six groups of 8 animals each. Group I served as the sham group. Rats in group II received a single intraperitoneal injection of succinate (50 mg/kg). Rats in group III received a pulmonary arterial bending (PAB) operation. Rats in groups IV, V and VI received PAB operations as did rats in group III followed by daily intraperitoneal injection of succinate (50 mg/kg) or wortmannin (5 μg/kg) or both, respectively.

Pulmonary arterial bending model establishment

PAB was induced by surgical placement of a 1.3 mm pulmonary arterial (PA) band. Median sternotomy was performed, and the PA was dissected free from the aorta and left atrium. A silk suture was placed around the PA, and a loose knot was formed. A 16-gauge needle was inserted through the knot, parallel to the PA. The suture was tied tightly, and the needle was withdrawn, creating a stenosis equal to the needle’s diameter (1.6 mm) [21]. Doppler echocardiography was performed and analyzed using a Vevo 2100 high-resolution imaging system with a 21-MHz transducer (VisualSonics, Toronto, ON, Canada) 4 weeks after PAB injection and before invasive pressure assessments [22]. Light anesthesia with 10% chloral hydrate was used to obtain two-dimensional M-mode Doppler imaging in both the long-axis (four-chamber) and short-axis views. The RV internal dimension at end diastole (RVIDd), RV anterior wall thickness (RVAWT), RV diastolic area (RVDA), RV fractional area change (RVFAC), left ventricular internal dimension at end diastole (LVIDd), left ventricle ejection fraction (LVEF) and left ventricle end-diastolic volume (LVEDV) were measured.

Pressure and right ventricular hypertrophy measurements

Invasive pressure measurements of right ventricular systolic pressure (RVSP) were performed as described previously [23]. After anesthesia, the rats’ tracheas were orally intubated with a 16-gauge intravenous catheter, and mechanical ventilation was commenced using a rodent respirator (tidal volume: 8 ml/kg, respiratory rate: 60/min). The pressure parameters were measured by direct puncture of the RV followed by advancement of the catheter into the RV, which was confirmed by a standard right ventricle pressure trace on the monitor screen. The catheter was then connected to the pressure transducer of a BSM-1700 monitor (Nihon Kohden Company, Japan). The data for the RVSP were recorded after 1 min of stabilization, and then the tibia length was measured. After the measurements were finished, all rats were sacrificed by overdose of midazolam and chloral hydrate. After the rats’ death, the hearts were harvested, and the RV free wall was dissected from the left ventricle and the septum (LV+S) and weighed separately. The RVH was quantified as RV/(LV+S) and RV/tibia length. The rats were administered analgesia and were unconscious during all procedures.

Histological analysis and Immunofluorescence

The hearts and lungs were excised, washed with saline solution and placed in 10% formalin. Several heart sections (4–5 μm thick) were prepared and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (HE) or with Masson for histopathology and then visualized by light microscopy. The evaluation of the cross-sectional area of the cardiomyocytes was outlined previously [24]. Immunofluorescence staining was performed using primary antibodies to detect GPR91 (1:50; Novus, USA) and alpha actinin (1:50; Abcam, USA), followed by incubation with a fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated secondary antibody (1:100; Bioworld, China). For the negative control experiments, the primary antibodies were omitted.

Western blot analysis

The specimens were homogenized using a tissue homogenizer or lysed in RIPA buffer (Bi Yun-tian, China) with the protease inhibitor cocktail (Bi Yun-tian, China) and PMSF. Tissue lysates were equalized with SDS 5× sample buffer, electrophoretically separated on 10% polyacrylamide gels and transferred onto nitrocellulose membranes for 1 h. Subsequently, the membranes were blocked for 1 h with 5% non-fat dry milk in Tris-buffered saline/0.1% Tween 20. After the membranes were blocked, they were probed with the following diluted primary antibodies: GPR91 (1:1000; Novus, USA), t-Akt (1:1000; Sigma, USA), p-Akt (1:1000; Sigma, USA) and Tubulin (1:5000, Bi Yun-tian, China). After the membranes were incubated in primary antibodies, the membranes were incubated with secondary goat anti-rabbit (1:10000, Bi Yun-tian, China) or rabbit anti-goat (1:10000, Bi Yun-tian, China) HRP-conjugated antibodies (ZSGB-BIO). Signals were then detected using the ECL detection system (Bio-Rad, USA) and further quantified using ImageJ software (National Institutes of Health, USA).

Cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes

Primary cardiomyocyte cultures were prepared as described previously [25]. Cells from the hearts of 1-day-old SD rats were seeded at a density of 1×106/well onto 6-well culture plates. The cells were kept quiescent for 48 hours, and then the medium was changed to either 10% FBS (Invitrogen, USA)/DMEM (Invitrogen, USA)/BrdU (Bi Yun-tian, China) alone or supplemented with succinate or succinate plus wortmannin.

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) transfection

Rat GPR91 (NC_005101.3) siRNAs were synthesized by Gene Pharma (Shanghai, China). The primer sequences for siRNA synthesis are as follows: 5’-AAT CTC TAA TGC CAG CCA ATT CCT GTC TC-3’ (sense) and 5’-AAA ATT GGC TGG CAT TAG AGA CCT GTC TC-3’ (antisense) for rat GPR91. Nontargeting (scrambled sequence) fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated siRNA was used as a negative control to discriminate nonspecific effects. FITC-conjugated siRNAs were transfected into cardiomyocytes using siRNA-MateTM reagent (Gene Pharma, Shanghai, China) at a final concentration of 5 nM siRNA for cardiomyocytes at 2 ml/well in 6-well plates. The transfection efficiency was estimated by fluorescent microscopy (Olympus, Japan). The mRNA knockdown was confirmed by RT-qPCR 48 h after transfection. Protein levels were confirmed by western blot analysis 72 h after transfection.

Statistical analysis

The data are presented as the mean ± SEM. Statistical analyses were performed using the IBM SPSS Statistics 19 statistical software program. The means among groups were compared using one-way ANOVA followed by Student-Newman-Keuls post hoc test. Statistical significance was set at P<0.05.

Results

RVH establishment in PAB rats

In our study, we used a PAB animal model for RVH. HE staining and histological analysis showed significant increases in the size of the RV cardiomyocytes in the PAB rats compared to the sham rats (Fig 1A). We also noted that PAB rats developed significant increases in the RV/(LV+S), RVSP, relative cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area and RV/tibia length compared to the sham rats (Fig 1B, 1C, 1D and 1E). The echocardiographic data indicated that the PAB rats also developed significant increases in the RVIDd, RVAWT, and RVDA and a decrease in the RVFAC compared to the sham rats (Fig 2A, 2B, 2C and 2D). Moreover, the PAB rats developed significant increases in the LVIDd and LVEDV and a decrease in the LVEF compared to the sham rats (Fig 2E, 2F and 2G). In the PAB rats, the expression of RVH-associated genes, such as myosin heavy chain-β (MHC-β), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), was up-regulated (Fig 3). To assess whether GPR91 plays a role in the pathogenesis of RVH, we determined the localization of GPR91 in the RV. The staining of RV sections with GPR91 antibody followed by confocal laser scanning microscopy clearly showed that GPR91 was strongly expressed in the RV cardiomyocytes, suggesting that GPR91 participates in RV function (Fig 4).

Fig 1

Representative images of HE-stained RV sections and RVH data.

A: Representative images of HE-stained RV sections from each group. B: RV hypertrophy indexed by the ratio of the wet weight of the RV to the left ventricular wall plus the septum [RV/(LV+S)] in each group (n = 8). C: RV systolic pressure in each group rats (n = 8). D: The relative cardio myocyte cross-sectional area in each group (n = 8). E: The RV/tibia length in each group (n = 8); P<0.05 compared to the sham group; *P<0.05 compared to the PAB group. F: Representative images of Masson-stained pulmonary sections from Sham, PAB and PAB+Suc groups.

Fig 2

Echocardiographic data of RV and LV in each group.

A: RV internal dimension at end diastole (RVIDd) in each group (n = 8). B: RV anterior wall thickness (RVAWT) in each group (n = 8). C: RV diastolic areas (RVDA) in each group (n = 8). D: The RV fractional area change (RVFAC) in each group (n = 8). E: Left ventricular internal dimension at end diastole (LVIDd) in each group (n = 8). F: Left ventricle ejection fraction (LVEF) in each group (n = 8). G: Left ventricle end-diastolic volume (LVEDV) in each group (n = 8); P<0.05 compared to the sham group; *P<0.05 compared to the PAB group.

Fig 3

The expression levels of the RVH-associated genes myosin heavy chain-β (MHC-β), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in each group (n = 8); P<0.05 compared to the sham group; *P<0.05 compared to the PAB group.

Fig 4

Expression and distribution of GPR91 in each group.

Confocal immunofluorescent images of the rat heart showing that staining for GPR91 (red), DAPI (blue) and the cardiomyocyte marker actinin (green) co-localize (merged).

Succinate accelerated RVH in the PAB model

HE staining and histological analysis demonstrated a strong RVH response in the PAB rats, as shown by myocardial fiber thickening, nuclear deformation and uneven dyeing in the RV after succinate administration compared to placebo administration (Fig 1A). Furthermore, succinate administration in the PAB rats significantly increased the RV/(LV+S), RVSP, relative cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area and RV/tibia length compared to placebo administration (Fig 1B, 1C, 1D and 1E). The echocardiographic data indicated that succinate administration in the PAB rats resulted in significant increases in the RVIDd, RVAWT, and RVDA and a decrease in the RVFAC compared to placebo administration (Fig 2A, 2B, 2C and 2D). Succinate administration in the PAB rats also resulted in significant increases in the LVIDd and LVEDV and a decrease in the LVEF compared to placebo administration (Fig 2E, 2F and 2G). Moreover, succinate administration in the PAB rats resulted in significant increases in MHC-β, ANP and VEGF gene expression (Fig 3). In contrast, succinate administration in the sham rats resulted in significant fibrosis of the RV (Fig 1F).

Succinate administration is associated with RV dysfunction in the sham group

HE staining and histological analysis demonstrated a significant RVH response after succinate administration in the sham rats compared to placebo administration (Fig 1A). Furthermore, succinate administration in the sham rats significantly increased the RV/(LV+S), RVSP, relative cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area and RV/tibia length compared to placebo administration (Fig 1B, 1C, 1D and 1E). The echocardiographic data indicated that succinate administration in the sham rats resulted in significant increases in the RVIDd, RVAWT, and RVDA and a decrease in the RVFAC compared to placebo administration (Fig 2A, 2B, 2C and 2D). Succinate administration in sham rats also resulted in significant increases in the LVIDd and LVEDV and a decrease in the LVEF compared to placebo administration (Fig 2E and 2F). Notably, succinate administration in the sham rats resulted in significant increases in MHC-β, ANP and VEGF gene expression (Fig 3).

Succinate administration elicits further activation of PI3K/Akt signaling in PAB and sham rats

To assess PI3K/Akt signaling activity in RVH, we measured p-Akt/t-Akt expression as an indicator of PI3K/Akt signaling activation. p-Akt/t-Akt protein levels were significantly increased in the PAB group compared to those in the sham group (Fig 5). We noted that p-Akt/Akt activation further increased in the RV in the PAB and sham groups after succinate administration compared to placebo administration (Fig 5). HE staining and histological analysis demonstrated that wortmannin inhibited myocardial fiber thickening, nuclear deformation and uneven dyeing in the RV in the PAB rats (Fig 1A). After wortmannin administration in the PAB groups, the changes in the RV/(LV+S), RVSP, relative cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area and RV/tibia length in the PAB models were also significantly inhibited (Fig 1B, 1C, 1D and 1E). Furthermore, wortmannin administration in the PAB group significantly inhibited changes in the RV/(LV+S), RVSP, relative cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area and RV/tibia length (Fig 1B, 1C, 1D and 1E). The echocardiographic data indicated that wortmannin administration resulted in significant inhibition of the changes in the RVIDd, RVAWT, RVDA, and RVFAC in the PAB group (Fig 2A, 2B, 2C and 2D). Wortmannin administration also significantly inhibited changes in the LVIDd, LVEDV and LVEF in the PAB group (Fig 2E, 2F and 2G). Notably, wortmannin administration significantly inhibited MHC-β, ANP and VEGF gene expression (Fig 3).

Fig 5

PI3K/Akt signaling in each group.

A: p-Akt/Akt expression from the western blot image of the sham, succinate, and succinate+wortmannin groups (n = 3); *P<0.05 compared to the sham group; P<0.05 compared to the succinate group. B: GPR91 expression as determined by western blot analysis of the sham, succinate, and succinate+wortmannin groups (n = 3); *P<0.05 compared to the sham group; P<0.05 compared to the succinate group. C: p-Akt/Akt expression as determined by western blot analysis of the sham, PAB, PAB+succinate, and PAB+succinate+wortmannin groups (n = 3); *P<0.05 compared to the sham group; P<0.05 compared to the PAB group; P<0.05, compared to the PAB+succinate group. D: GPR91 expression as determined by western blot analysis of the sham, PAB, PAB+succinate, and PAB+succinate +wortmannin groups (n = 3); *P<0.05 compared to the sham group; P<0.05 compared to the succinate group; P<0.05 compared to the PAB+succinate group (n = 3).

Wortmannin inhibited severe RVH induced by succinate

HE staining and histological analysis demonstrated that wortmannin inhibited myocardial fiber thickening, nuclear deformation and uneven dyeing in the RV induced by succinate in the PAB and sham rats (Fig 1A). After wortmannin was administered to the succinate groups, changes in the RV/(LV+S), RVSP, relative cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area and RV/tibia length induced by succinate in the PAB and sham groups were significantly inhibited (Fig 1B, 1C, 1D and 1E). The echocardiographic data indicated that the changes in the RVIDd, RVAWT, RVDA, and RVFAC induced by succinate in the PAB and sham groups were also significantly inhibited (Fig 2A, 2B, 2C and 2D), and the changes in the LVIDd, LVEDV and LVEF induced by succinate in the PAB and sham groups were significantly inhibited (Fig 2E, 2F and 2G). Wortmannin administration to the succinate groups also significantly inhibited MHC-β, ANP and VEGF gene expression (Fig 3).

Succinate caused the activation of RVH-associated genes and PI3K/Akt signaling in the cardiac muscle cells in vitro

Exposing the cells to succinate led to up-regulation of the expression levels of the RVH-associated gene anp compared to the control (Fig 6). Furthermore, exposing the cells to succinate led to an increase in p-Akt/Akt levels compared to the sham (Fig 6). Administration of siRNA-GPR91 inhibited the up-regulation of anp expression compared to the succinate group (Fig 6). Furthermore, administration of siRNA-GPR91 inhibited the increase in p-Akt/Akt levels compared to the succinate group (Fig 6). We also found that wortmannin inhibited the up-regulation of RVH gene anp expression induced by succinate in the succinate-treated group (Fig 6).

Fig 6

ANP gene expression and PI3K/Akt signaling in cardiac muscle cells in vitro.

A: Immunofluorescent images of cardiomyocytes with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated siRNA GPR91. B, C: GPR91 gene and protein expression in the sham and siRNA-GPR91 groups (n = 3). D: ANP expression in the sham, succinate, succinate+wortmannin, and succinate+siRNA-GPR91 groups (n = 3). E: Bar graph showng p-Akt/Akt expression as determined by western blot analysis of each group (n = 3). F: p-Akt/Akt expression as determined by western blot analysis of each group (n = 3); *P<0.05 compared to the sham group; P<0.05 compared to the succinate group.

GPR91-PI3K/Akt signaling also exists in humans

To determine whether the GPR91-PI3K/Akt axis could be involved in cardiac hypertrophy in humans, we performed western blot analysis of the right atrium in control, hypertrophic and non-hypertrophic patients. We also analyzed echocardiography and histological sections by HE staining to confirm RVH. As expected, the GPR91-PI3K/Akt axis significantly increased in hypertrophic patients (Fig 7) compared to the non-hypertrophic and control patients. No significant differences in the protein expression levels were observed between the control and non-hypertrophic patients.

Fig 7

GPR91-PI3K/Akt signaling also exists in the human heart.

A: Representative images of echocardiographic data from control, hypertrophic and non-hypertrophic patients. B: Representative images of HE-stained RA sections from control, hypertrophic and non-hypertrophic patients. C: GPR91 expression as determined by western blot analysis of the RA of control, hypertrophic and non-hypertrophic patients. D: p-Akt/Akt expression as determined by western blot analysis of the RA of control, hypertrophic and non-hypertrophic patients. E: Bar graph showing GPR91 expression as determined by western blot analysis of the RA of control, hypertrophic and non-hypertrophic patients (n = 3). F: Bar graph p-Akt/Akt expression as determined by western blot analysis of the RA of control, hypertrophic and non-hypertrophic patients (n = 3); *P<0.05 compared to the control subjects; P<0.05 compared to the non-hypertrophic patients.

Discussion

Although succinate has been intensively studied for more than 60 years in the context of energy production, the recent demonstration that it could induce cellular signaling transduction through GPR91 raised the possibility of physiological properties beyond its traditional role as a Krebs cycle metabolite [20]. In the present study, we noted that the succinate-GPR91-PI3K/Akt axis exists in RVH. The effects of succinate were inhibited by down-regulating GPR91 and by administering wortmannin, an inhibitor of Akt, indicating that the PI3K/Akt axis was the downstream effector of succinate-GPR91 in RVH. In addition, we also found that the succinate-GPR91 axis might also exist in RVH in the monocrotaline (MCT) model, as shown in the supplemental data. We also noted that the succinate-GPR91-PI3K/Akt axis exists in the human heart. Our findings show that succinate-GPR91 is involved in RVH via the PI3K/Akt pathway.

Although the initial insult in PAH involves the pulmonary vasculature, the survival of patients with PAH is closely related to RV function [26,27]. Because of the pulmonary arterial pressure elevation, the RV has to accommodate an increased afterload [28]. In this condition, elevated wall stresses develop in the RV lateral free wall and outflow tract and then the RVH [29,30]. Initially, RVH can be compensatory to preserve RV function, particularly because of its ability to increase contractility and to preserve efficient management of the pulmonary vascular lesion; however, RVH is still ongoing, characterized by an increase in cardiomyocyte size and fibrosis, and leads to enlargement of the heart, depression of contractile function and, eventually, right HF [31,32]. Therefore, failed adaption of the RV to the increased afterload is the main cause of death in patients with PAH [33]. The RV is a crescent-shaped chamber that wraps around the LV; its complex shape makes estimation of volumes and surface areas challenging. The RV free wall is thinner than the LV free wall because of the lower ventricular pressures [34], and the crescent shape and the thin wall make the RV ventricle more compliant than the LV [35,36]. Furthermore, RV pressure changes correlate with RV volume changes over the cardiac cycle in a different manner than LV pressure changes correlate with LV volume changes. These differences can make the use of LV-based metrics in the RV impractical or the results questionable [37,38]. Therefore, the standard treatments for LVH (ACE inhibitors, β-blockers) have shown limited success in RVH.

In 2004, He W et al. found that the purified GPR91 ligand was confirmed to be succinate [19]. This research implied a signaling role for succinate beyond energy production and established a direct link between the metabolic system and the cell signal transduction system. In PAH, the RV O2 demand was increased, as primarily determined by elevated pulmonary pressures and heart rate [39]. However, despite a higher O2 demand, the RV myocardial blood flow remained unchanged, resulting in insufficient O2 supply to the RV myocardium [40]. The succinate dehydrogenase complex is part of the electron transport chain in the mitochondrial membrane; its activity indirectly depends on the availability of oxygen. Therefore, in situations when the O2 supply is low, succinate accumulates because of low activity of succinate dehydrogenase or other enzymes in the electron transport chain that affect its activity [41]. As may be expected for a component of the citric acid cycle, succinate is normally present in the mitochondria; however, succinate can be released to the extracellular space due to local energy metabolism disturbances [42]. In response to pressure overload of the heart, succinate circulating concentrations up to the millimolar range were detected due to an imbalance between energy demand and oxygen supply [43]. Therefore, succinate appears to be particularly important in the context of pathological conditions in the pressure-overloaded heart; furthermore, using an aequorin luminescence assay, the half-maximal response succinate concentrations for inducing the activation of human and mouse GPR91 were 56±8 and 28±5 μM, far below the succinate circulating concentration in response to pressure overload in PAH [44,45]. Considering these results, we propose that succinate-GPR91 signaling may regulate RVH induced by PAH. As the Krebs cycle and the respiratory chain are ancestral processes that are intimately involved with energy production in cardiomyocytes, it is not surprising that cardiomyocytes exploit at least one metabolite, succinate, as a crucial regulator of RVH induced by pressure overload. We noted that succinate could lead to RVH through GRP91 in vivo and in vitro. We found that the succinate-GPR91 axis also exists in the human heart. Our findings indicate that succinate-GPR91 signaling is an important pathogenic mechanism in RVH. A recent article in Nature found that the ischemic accumulation of succinate controls reperfusion injury through mitochondrial ROS [46], which also play an important role in the RVH, namely, when the mitochondrial ROS increases, cardiomyocyte hypertrophy is always induced [47]. Furthermore, these findings may reveal a new mitochondrial pathway of GPR91 in RVH. More studies are needed to investigate this question.

PI3K mediates many cellular responses in both physiological and pathophysiological states [48]. Once activated, PI3K leads to the recruitment and activation of Akt, which is a serine/threonine protein kinase. PI3K/Akt signaling plays a critical role in regulating cardiac hypertrophy [49]: overexpression of membrane-targeted AKT in the mouse heart for 2 weeks induced hypertrophy, whereas sustained AKT expression for 6 weeks caused heart failure [50]. Furthermore, the hearts of Akt knockout mice weigh approximately 20% less than those of wild-type mice [51]. Succinate-GPR91 signaling was demonstrated to promote VEGF and cAMP [52] activation, which both could regulate the PI3K/Akt pathway [53,54]. In the present study, we noted that treatment with an excessive succinate concentration accelerated RVH through a GPR91-PI3K/Akt-dependent pathway both in vivo and in vitro. Our findings indicate that PI3K/Akt are downstream of succinate-GPR91, which accelerated RVH. We report that the succinate-GPR91-PI3K/Akt axis also exists in the human heart. PI3K/AKT signaling plays major roles in the pathology of cancer and in the development of resistance in tumor cells [55], insulin resistance [56], and lung injury [57]. Therefore, many studies are needed to design a specific GPR91 inhibitor targeting this signaling pathway only in RVH.

Capillary/myocyte mismatch is a hallmark of maladaptive myocardial hypertrophy, and increased VEGF expression is involved in preservation of the density of myocardial capillaries in cardiac hypertrophy and prevention of the development of maladaptive ventricular remodeling [58], showing that VEGF down-regulation is regarded as a maladaptive response in RVH. The down-regulation of VEGF was also found to attenuate RVH in hypoxic mice [51], showing that VEGF down-regulation is regarded as an adaptive response in RVH. Thus, the role of VEGF is complex in RVH, which may explain why wortmannin-mediated downregulation did not lead to worsening of RV function in our research.

In our study, succinate administration led to RVSP elevation in RVH, in anticipation of a drop in RVSP secondary to a drop in cardiac contractility, filling restriction secondary to fibrosis or both in RVH. Our results also showed that succinate administration resulted muscularization of the pulmonary arteries. The RVSP elevation often caused by the muscularization of the pulmonary vessel wall contributed to an increase the afterload of RV and could be the reason for succinate administration leading to RVSP elevation in RVH. This finding suggests a role for succinate alone in the development of lung vessel muscularization.

In conclusion, succinate-GPR91 may be involved in pressure overload-induced RVH. Our results also indicate that the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway is involved in the effects of succinate-GPR91-mediated RVH.

Representative images of HE-stained RV sections for each group in the monocrotaline (MCT) model.

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Representative images of RVH data for the MCT model.

A: RV systolic pressure in each group of rats (n = 8). B: RV hypertrophy indexed by the ratio of the wet weight of the RV to the left ventricular wall plus the septum [RV/(LV+S)] in each group (n = 8). C: The relative cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area in each group (n = 8). D: RV fractional area change in each group (n = 8); P<0.05 compared to the control rats; *P<0.05 compared to the MCT rats.

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Clinical information about patient samples used in this study.

(DOCX)

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