A comparative analysis of ethnomedicinal practices for treating gastrointestinal disorders used by communities living in three national parks (Korea).

The purpose of this study is to comparatively analyze the ethnomedicinal practices on gastrointestinal disorders within communities in Jirisan National Park, Gayasan National Park, and Hallasan National Park of Korea. Data was collected through participant observations and indepth interviews with semistructured questionnaires. Methods for comparative analysis were accomplished using the informant consensus factor, fidelity level, and internetwork analysis. A total of 490 ethnomedicinal practices recorded from the communities were classified into 110 families, 176 genera, and 220 species that included plants, animals, fungi, and alga. The informant consensus factor values in the disorder categories were enteritis, and gastralgia (1.0), followed by indigestion (0.94), constipation (0.93), and abdominal pain and gastroenteric trouble (0.92). In terms of fidelity levels, 71 plant species showed fidelity levels of 100%. The internetwork analysis between disorders and all medicinal species are grouped in the center by the four categories of indigestion, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and gastroenteric trouble, respectively. Regarding the research method of this study, the comparative analysis methods will contribute to the availability of orally transmitted ethnomedicinal knowledge. Among the methods of analysis, the use of internetwork analysis as a tool for analysis in this study provides imperative internetwork maps between gastrointestinal disorders and medicinal species.

1. Introduction

After the agreement of the Nagoya Protocol, which has highlighted the importance of traditional knowledge of local communities, interest has grown stronger regarding ethnomedicinal knowledge in the world [1]. Ethnomedicinal knowledge plays an extremely vital role in the health care systems of developing countries and is utilized as an alternative for the treatment of disorders without side effects in developed countries [2]. Investigations regarding ethnomedicinal knowledge in local communities have often been conducted to the indigenous communities of Asia, Africa, and South America.

At present, studies on the ethnomedicinal practices of local communities to treat specific disorders have been accomplished, including liver disease [3, 4], birth-related diseases [5, 6], uremia [7], diabetes [8], psychiatric disorders [9], ophthalmology [10], skin disorders [11], stomach issues [11], veterinary medicine [12, 13], and other health conditions. However, research using INA on the ethnomedicinal practices to treat gastrointestinal disorders within local communities has yet to be accomplished.

Investigations for the ethnomedicinal practices of local communities to treat specific disorders in Korea have included respiratory diseases [14], digestive system disorders [15], and pain relief [16] for communities in North Jeolla Province.

National parks in Korea are areas designated to protect the representative ecosystem and the natural/cultural sceneries by the Ministry of Environment and are defined as natural areas of both land and sea. National parks are managed directly by the government and their purpose is to combine both a conservation and a sustainable use of the natural resources within the parks.

Designated as the first national park in 1967, Jirisan National Park spreads across one city and four counties and lies within three provinces. The total area of Jirisan National Park is 485 km2, which makes it the largest mountainous national park in Korea.

Hallasan National Park is located at the heart of Jeju Island, the largest and most beautiful island in Korea. Its total area is 1,849.18 km2 and is located at the southernmost tip of the nation.

Located in the deep inlands of southeastern Korea, Gayasan National Park spreads across one city and four counties and is located within two provinces. The total area of the park is 76.256 km2 and is known as the sacred site of Buddhism.

Accordingly, this research is the first attempt for comparing and analyzing ethnomedicinal practices to treat gastrointestinal disorders of communities in three national parks in Korea. However, up until now, a quantitative analysis for ethnomedicinal knowledge of local communities has relied solely on the consensus of its informants [17, 18] and the recorded fidelity levels [19-21].

These methods have limitations on the sufficient interpretation of ethnomedicinal knowledge as a complicated knowledge system embedded within the traditional ethnographical properties. Therefore, a deeper analysis of ethnomedicinal practices in treating specific disorders within the local communities is necessary for obtaining more specific details regarding the internetwork analysis (INA) between disorders and medicinal species.

This research suggests that the applications gained from utilizing the comparative INA for ethnomedicinal practices on gastrointestinal disorders within communities in three national parks will result in further research incorporating INA. The three study areas included in this study are Jirisan National Park (JNP), Gayasan National Park (GNP), and Hallasan National Park (HNP). These regions are included as typical inland and island areas of the southern region in Korea. Among the three national parks, the ethnomedicinal practices of the communities living within HNP were investigated in regard to both medicinal plants [22] and medicinal animals [23].

The results of this study can be utilized to develop functional foods, pharmafoods, and new ethnomedicinal practices for gastrointestinal disorders in these communities and other regions within Korea.

2. Research Area and Method

2.1. Natural and Social Environments of Research Area

The study area consists of the southern region of the Korean peninsula and its many islands, which lie between 33° 06′N to 36° 09′N latitude and 125° 58′E to 128° 18′E longitude (Figure 1). The total population in 2012 of the study area was 1,161,002. The area measures approximately 2,410,434 km2 and includes five provinces, four cities, and eight counties in its administrative district [24]. The annual precipitation is around 1,200~2,300 mm in which the coastal area generally receives more rainfall than the inland regions. The annual average temperature of the inland regions is 13°C, while Jeju Island records 16.2°C [25]. The natural and social environments of the three national parks are summarized in Table 1.

Figure 1

Investigation sites.

Table 1

Natural and social environments of three national parks.

Environment	JNP	GNP	HNP
Location	35°13′N~33°27′N 127°27′E~127°49′E	35°45′N~35°49′N 128°02′E~128°09′E	33°06′N~34°00′N 126°08′E~126°58′E
Administrative district	Three provinces, one city, and four counties	Two provinces, one city, and four counties	One province and two cities
Population (no.)	241,784	335,934	583,284
Area	485 km2	76.256 km2	1,849.18 km2
Annual precipitation	1,200~1,600 mm	1,200~1,600 mm	1,584~2,393 mm
Annual average temperature	12°C~14°C	11°C~13.2°C	15.6~16.9°C
Geographical characteristics	The center of the southern region of Korea	The southern region of Korea	The largest volcanic island in Korea
Climatic zone of vegetation	Between a warm temperate zone and a subarctic zone		Between a warm temperature zone to an alpine or arctic zone

∗JNP: Jirisan National Park, GNP: Gayasan National Park, HNP: Hallasan National Park.

2.2. Investigative Method

Field investigations were conducted from March 2009 to November 2012. Proper data was collected using participant observations and indepth interviews, as the informants also became investigators themselves through attending informal meetings, open and group discussions, and overt observations with semistructured questionnaires [21, 26].

The content of the semistructured questionnaires was composed of diverse information regarding medicinal species used to treat gastrointestinal disorders, including local names, used parts, methods of preparation, manufacturing and administration, dosage, and the usable duration regarding each curable formula [21, 27, 28].

All specimens were collected during their flowering or fruiting seasons and were organized utilizing the normal specimen manufacturing method [20, 27]. The voucher specimens were deposited for preservation in the herbarium of Jeonju University. The precise identification of species mentioned by the informants was performed in accordance with Lee [29], Lee [30], Ahn [31], Lee [32], and Park [33]. Scientific names were confirmed by the National Knowledge and Information System for Biological Species of Korea [34].

2.3. Quantitative Analysis

2.3.1. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)

The ICF was used to analyze the agreement degree of the informants' knowledge about each category of disorders [17, 18]. The ICF was calculated using the following formula: where n is the number of use reports of informants for a particular gastrointestinal disorder and n is the number of species used by all informants for a particular gastrointestinal disorder.

2.3.2. Fidelity Level (FL)

The FL was employed to determine the most important species used for treating certain gastrointestinal disorders by the local practitioners and the elderly people living in the study area [19-21]. The FL was calculated using the following formula: where N is the number of informants that mentioned the specific species used to treat certain disorders and N is the total number of the informants who utilized the species as medicine for treating any given disorder.

2.3.3. Internetwork Analysis (INA)

Internetwork analysis does not focus on the independent characteristics of an individual within the community but considers the results of the interrelationship among each individual of a community. INA has been applied within communities for various ethnographical problems, including ethnogenesis [35] and obesity [36-38]. However, the INA had yet to be applied to ethnomedicinal knowledge, although it has been included in relation to its ethnographical properties.

Our research has newly applied this method in order to attain more internetwork information from the treatment of ethnomedicinal practices on gastrointestinal disorders within communities in Korea. The results of the INA of disorders and medicinal species were analyzed using UCINET (Ver. 6.460) and NetDraw (Ver. 2.125) software programs [39, 40].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Ethnographic Characteristics of the Region

The ethnomedicinal practices for gastrointestinal disorders were recorded by 507 informants (133 men and 374 women) at 185 sites (Figure 1). The average age of the informants was 76 years, with a range in age from 43 to 95, with residents living more than 30 years in the study area. The ethnographical characteristics of the communities are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2

Ethnographical characteristics of three national parks.

Characteristics	JNP	GNP	HNP
Gender
Male	67 (34.9%)	36 (15.6%)	31 (36.5%)
Female	125 (65.1%)	195 (84.4%)	54 (63.5%)
Average age	72.9 (44~95)	76.8 (52~93)	78.4 (43~94)
Educational attainment
Never attended school	138 (71.9%)	165 (71.4%)	62 (72.9%)
Attended school	54 (28.1%)	66 (28.6%)	23 (27.1%)
Linguistics	The pronunciation between the eastern and western communities on the Jirisan axis depicts dissimilar intonations.		Numerous dialects  different from the inland communities.
Food	The local communities in the eastern region of Jirisan widely used the seed powder of Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC. and the leaves of the Isodon japonicus (Burm.) Hara, while local communities in the western region did not consume these foods.		Quite diverse from foods of the inland communities in regard to the recipe and ingredients.
Home economy	Men usually support their families financially.		Women traditionally support their families.

3.2. Analysis of Ethnomedicinal Practices

24 types of gastrointestinal disorders were treated by ethnomedicinal practices, which included abdominal pain, acute gastroenteritis, constipation, and other conditions (Table 3). The 24 types recorded in this study were similar to previous research, which classified 14 types of respiratory system diseases, 29 types of digestive system diseases, and 23 types of pain relief treatments [14, 16, 21]. Among them, 20 types of disorders were recorded in the communities living within JNP, followed by the 16 types of disorders within HNP, and the 11 types of disorders in GNP (Table 4).

Table 3

Ethnomedicinal practices for treating gastrointestinal disorders recorded in three national parks.

Disorders	Classification	Family name	Scientific name	∗Abbreviation	∗∗Region	Korean name	Used part	Preparation	FL
	Animal	Anguillidae	Anguilla japonica Temminck and Schlegel	A6	JNP	Baemjangeo	Whole part	Simmer	50.00
		Apidae	Apis cerana Fabricius	A7	JNP	Jaeraekkulbeol	Honey	Raw	3.45
		Bombycidae	Bombyx mori L.	A12	GNP, JNP	Nuenabang	Larva, Pupa	Decoction and panbroiled	100.00
		Columbidae	Streptopelia orientalis Latham	A60	GNP	Metbidulgi	Meat	Simmer	33.33
		Congridae	Conger myriaster Brevoort	A18	HNP	Bungjangeo	Gallbladder	Raw	100.00
		Osmeridae	Plecoglossus altivelis Temminck and Schlegel	A45	JNP	Euneo	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
		Percichthyidae	Lateolabrax japonicus Cuvier and Valenciennes	A30	HNP	Nongeo	Gallbladder	Dried, dissolution, powder, and raw	85.71
		Phasianidae	Gallus gallus domesticus L.	A25	GNP, JNP	Dak	Whole part	Infusion	23.38
		Suidae	Sus scrofa L.	A62	HNP	Dwaeji	Gallbladder	Raw and maceration	40.00
	Fungi	Ganodermataceae	Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst	F2	GNP	Yeongji	Whole part	Boiling	22.22
		Pleurotaceae	Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Sing.	F3	JNP	Pyogo	Whole part	Porridge	100.00
		Polyporaceae	Fomes fomentarius (L.) Fr.	F1	JNP	Malgupbeoseot	Whole part	Decoction	33.33
		Actinidiaceae	Actinidia arguta (Siebold and Zucc.) Planch. ex Miq.	P4	GNP	Darae	Stem	Infusion	66.67
		Anacardiaceae	Rhus javanica L.	P106	JNP	Bungnamu	Gallnut	Decoction	100.00
			Rhus verniciflua Stokes	P107	JNP	Onnamu	Bark, stem	Infusion	11.43
		Araliaceae	Aralia cordata var. continentalis (Kitag.) Y.C.Chu	P14	GNP	Dokhwal	Root	Infusion	30.00
			Eleutherococcus sessiliflorus (Rupr. and Maxim.) S.Y.Hu	P42	JNP	Ogalpinamu	Stem	Decoction and infusion	100.00
		Asteraceae	Artemisia princeps Pamp.	P17	GNP, HNP, JNP	Ssuk	Aerial part, leaf, whole part, Young leaf	Infusion, juice, and tea	51.13
			Cirsium japonicum var. maackii (Maxim.) Matsum.	P28	GNP	Eonggeongkwi	Root	Juice	40.00
			Zinnia violacea Cav.	P141	JNP	Baegilhong	Stem	Infusion	100.00
		Brassicaceae	Raphanus sativus L.	P102	JNP	Mu	Root	Boiling and dried	100.00
		Campanulaceae	Platycodon grandiflorum (Jacq.) A.DC.	P86	GNP	Doraji	Root	Infusion	100.00
		Euphorbiaceae	Ricinus communis L.	P109	HNP	Pimaja	Seed	Oil	1.10
		Fabaceae	Glycine max (L.) Merr.	P50	JNP	Kong	Seed	Fermentation and dissolution	15.29
			Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.	P51	GNP	Gamcho	Root	Infusion	46.15
			Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi	P97	GNP	Chik	Flower, root	Dried, decoction, grain syrup, and infusion	25.76
			Sophora flavescens Solander ex Aiton	P122	GNP	Gosam	Root	Maceration	6.25
Abdominal pain		Gentianaceae	Gentiana scabra Bunge	P47	GNP	Yongdam	Root	A sweet drink made from fermented rice and infusion	96.00
		Geraniaceae	Geranium sibiricum L.	P48	JNP	Jwisonipul	Whole part	Decoction	100.00
			Geranium thunbergii Siebold and Zucc.	P49	GNP, HNP	Ijilpul	Leaf, whole part	Decoction and infusion	76.92
		Juglandaceae	Juglans mandshurica Maxim.	P58	JNP	Garaenamu	Fruit	Raw	100.00
			Platycarya strobilacea Siebold and Zucc.	P85	GNP	Gulpinamu	Stem	Infusion	100.00
		Lamiaceae	Leonurus japonicus Houtt.	P61	GNP, HNP, JNP	Ingmocho	Aerial part	Decoction, infusion, juice, pill, and taffy	88.71
			Mentha piperascens (Malinv.) Holmes	P69	HNP	Bakha	Leaf	Juice	100.00
			Perilla frutescens var. japonica (Hassk.) Hara	P77	GNP	Deulkkae	Seed	Mixed in honey	63.64
	Plant		Salvia plebeia R.Br.	P114	GNP	Baeamchajeugi	Whole part	Infusion	50.00
		Lardizabalaceae	Akebia quinata (Houtt.) Decne.	P8	GNP	Eureumdeonggul	Stem	Infusion	85.71
		Liliaceae	Allium scorodorprasum var. viviparum Regel	P11	HNP	Maneul	Bulb	Juice	42.86
		Meliaceae	Melia azedarach L.	P68	HNP	Meolguseulnamu	Fruit	Decoction	47.37
		Papaveraceae	Papaver somniferum L.	P74	GNP, JNP	Yanggwibi	Fruit, leaf, stem, whole part	Brewing, decoction, dissolution, dried, grain syrup, infusion, maceration, and raw	82.54
		Phytolaccaceae	Phytolacca esculenta VanHoutte	P80	GNP	Jarigong	Root	Infusion	29.41
		Plantaginaceae	Plantago asiatica L.	P84	GNP	Jilgyeongi	Root	Juice	6.90
		Poaceae	Hordeum vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Asch.	P54	GNP	Bori	Malt, seed	Dissolution and steep	5.52
			Oryza sativa L.	P72	JNP	Byeo	Seed	Porridge	42.86
			Oryza sativa var. terrestris Makino	P73	HNP	Sandu	Seed	Porridge	15.38
			Triticum aestivum L.	P129	HNP	Mil	Seed	Pill	3.85
			Zea mays L.	P139	GNP	Oksusu	Style	Infusion	100.00
		Punicaceae	Punica granatum L.	P99	GNP, HNP	Seongnyunamu	Fruit	Extraction, infusion, and raw	50.00
		Ranunculaceae	Pulsatilla koreana (Yabe ex Nakai) Nakai ex Nakai	P98	GNP	Halmikkot	Root	A sweet drink made from fermented rice, grain syrup, and infusion	44.78
		Rosaceae	Prunus davidiana (Carriere) Franch.	P93	GNP	Sanboksanamu	Fruit	Extraction	100.00
			Prunus mume Siebold and Zucc.	P94	GNP, JNP	Maesillamu	Fruit	Extraction	40.30
			Sanguisorba officinalis L.	P115	HNP	Oipul	Root	Decoction	22.22
		Rubiaceae	Gardenia jasminoides Ellis	P45	JNP	Chijanamu	Fruit	Decoction	100.00
		Rutaceae	Phellodendron amurense Rupr.	P79	HNP	Hwangbyeongnamu	Bark	Brewing and decoction	7.69
			Zanthoxylum schinifolium Siebold and Zucc.	P138	GNP	Sanchonamu	Fruit	Oil	21.43
		Schisandraceae	Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill.	P117	GNP	Omija	Stem	Infusion	66.67
		Solanaceae	Solanum nigrum L.	P121	GNP	Kkamajung	Aerial part	Infusion	11.76
		Theaceae	Camellia japonica L.	P21	HNP	Dongbaengnamu	Fruit	Oil	40.00
		Vitaceae	Vitis coignetiae Pulliat ex Planch.	P135	GNP	Meoru	Stem	Infusion	100.00
	Animal	Paralichthyidae	Paralichthys olivaceus Temminck and Schlegel	A41	HNP	Neopchi	Gallbladder	Dried	100.00
		Percichthyidae	Lateolabrax japonicus Cuvier and Valenciennes	A30	HNP	Nongeo	Gallbladder	Dried	14.29
		Suidae	Sus scrofa L.	A62	HNP	Dwaeji	Gallbladder	Dried	20.00
		Cucurbitaceae	Cucumis sativus L.	P35	JNP	Oi	Leaf	Raw	100.00
		Fabaceae	Glycine max (L.) Merr.	P50	JNP	Kong	Seed	Fermentation and dissolution	8.24
Acute gastroenteritis		Juglandaceae	Juglans regia Dode	P59	JNP	Hodunamu	Nut	Roast	100.00
		Liliaceae	Allium scorodoprasum var. viviparum Regel	P11	JNP	Maneul	Bulb	Roast	35.71
	Plant	Menispermaceae	Cocculus trilobus (Thunb.) DC.	P34	JNP	Daengdaengideonggul	Stem	Infusion	12.20
		Plantaginaceae	Plantago asiatica L.	P84	JNP	Jilgyeongi	Root	Juice	13.79
		Punicaceae	Punica granatum L.	P99	JNP	Seongnyunamu	Fruit	Brewing, juice, and raw	50.00
		Ranunculaceae	Aconitum pseudolaeve Nakai	P3	JNP	Jinbeom	Leaf, root	Decoction	100.00
		Gryllotalpidae	Gryllotalpa orientalis Burmeister	A28	JNP	Ttanggangaji	Whole part	Powder	83.33
		Mantidae	Tenodera angustipennis Saussure	A64	JNP	Samagwi	Egg sac	Decoction	50.00
	Animal		Tenodera aridifolia Stoll	A65	JNP	Wangsamagwi	Egg sac	Decoction	50.00
		Vespidae	Vespa analis parallela Andre	A67	JNP	Jommalbeol	Hive, imago, larva	Brewing	81.82
			Vespa crabro flavofasciata Cameron	A68	JNP	Malbeol	Hive, imago, larva	Brewing	87.10
			Vespa simillimasimillima Smith	A70	JNP	Teolbomalbeol	Hive, imago, larva	Brewing	81.82
	Fungi	Polyporaceae	Fomes fomentarius (L.: Fr.) Fr.	F1	JNP	Malgupbeoseot	Whole part	Decoction	33.33
		Asteraceae	Ainsliaea acerifolia Sch.Bip.	P7	JNP	Danpungchwi	Leaf	Seasoned cooked vegetables	100.00
		Boraginaceae	Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold and Zucc.	P63	JNP	Jichi	Root	Powder	11.11
Constipation		Cactaceae	Opuntia ficus-indica var. saboten Makino	P71	HNP	Sonbadakseoninjang	Stem	Raw	33.33
		Ebenaceae	Diospyros kaki Thunb.	P41	JNP	Gamnamu	Fruit	Fermentation	2.40
		Euphorbiaceae	Ricinus communis L.	P109	GNP, HNP	Pimaja	Fruit, seed	Oil and panfried	43.53
		Liliaceae	Polygonatum odoratum var. pluriflorum (Miq.) Ohwi	P87	JNP	Dunggulle	Root	Tea	40.00
	Plant		Smilax china L.	P120	JNP	Cheongmiraedeonggul	Fruit	Brewing	100.00
		Meliaceae	Melia azedarach L.	P68	HNP	Meolguseulnamu	Root	Decoction	21.05
		Phytolaccaceae	Phytolacca esculenta VanHoutte	P80	GNP	Jarigong	Root	Raw	35.29
		Rosaceae	Prunus tomentosa Thunb.	P95	JNP	Aengdonamu	Fruit	Brewing	100.00
		Rutaceae	Zanthoxylum schinifolium Siebold and Zucc.	P138	GNP	Sanchonamu	Fruit	Oil	14.29
		Saururaceae	Saururus chinensis (Lour.) Baill.	P116	JNP	Sambaekcho	Leaf	Decoction	50.00
		Theaceae	Camellia japonica L.	P21	HNP	Dongbaengnamu	Fruit	Oil	40.00
Deficiency of intestinal function		Apidae	Apis mellifera L.	A8	JNP	Yangbongkkulbeol	Honey	Raw	10.00
	Animal	Vespidae	Vespa analis parallela Andre	A67	JNP	Jommalbeol	Hive, larva	Decoction and infusion	18.18
			Vespa crabro flavofasciata Cameron	A68	JNP	Malbeol	Hive, larva	Decoction and infusion	12.90
			Vespa simillima simillima Smith	A70	JNP	Teolbomalbeol	Hive	Decoction and infusion	18.18
	Plant	Asteraceae	Artemisia princeps Pamp.	P17	JNP	Ssuk	Leaf	Tea	0.32
		Acrididae	Anapodisma beybienkoi Rentz and Miller	A5	JNP	Palgongsanmitdeurimettugi	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
			Arcyptera coreana Shiraki	A9	JNP	Chameorisapsari	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
			Chorthippus nakazimai Furukawa	A17	JNP	Suyeomchireaemettugi	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
			Gastrimargus marmoratus Thunberg	A26	JNP	Kongjungi	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
			Locusta migratoria L.	A32	JNP	Pulmuchi	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
			Megaulacobothrus aethalinus Zubowsky	A34	JNP	Cheongnalgaeaemettugi	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
			Mongolotettix japonicus Bolivar	A36	JNP	Sapsari	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
			Ognevia longipennis Shiraki	A38	JNP	Ginnalgaemitdeurimettugi	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
			Ognevia sergii Ikonnikovi Rehn and Rehni	A39	JNP	Wonsanmitdeurimettugi	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
			Oxya japonica japonica Thunberg	A40	JNP	Byeomettugi	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
			Patanga japonica Bolivar	A43	JNP	Gaksimettugi	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
	Animal		Shirakiacris shirakii Bolivar	A58	JNP	Deunggeomeunmettugi	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
			Stethophyma magister Rehn	A59	JNP	Kkeutgeomeunmettugi	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
		Gryllidae	Teleogryllus emma Ohmachi and Matsumura	A63	JNP	Wanggwitturami	Whole part	Powder	100.00
		Megascolecidae	Lumbricus rubellus Hoffmeister	A33	JNP	Jireongi	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
		Phasianidae	Gallus gallus domesticus L.	A25	GNP	Dak	Egg	Infusion	6.49
		Pyrgomorphidae	Atractomorpha lata Motschulsky	A10	JNP	Seomseogumettugi	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
		Ranidae	Rana coreana Okada	A48	JNP	Hanguksangaeguri	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
			Rana huanrenensis Fei, Ye, and Huang	A49	JNP	Gyegoksangaeguri	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
			Rana nigromaculata Okada	A50	JNP	Chamgaeguri	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
			Rana temporaria dybowskii Shannon	A51	JNP	Bukbangsangaeguri	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
		Suidae	Sus scrofa L.	A62	JNP	Dwaeji	Hide	Infusion	10.00
Diarrhea		Tubificidae	Limnodrilus gotoi Hatai	A31	JNP	Siljireongi	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
		Vespidae	Vespa mandarinia Cameron	A69	JNP	Jangsumalbeol	Hive, imago, and larva	Decoction	100.00
	Fungi	Ramariaceae	Ramaria botrytis (Pers.) Ricken	F4	GNP	Ssaribeoseot	Whole part	Infusion	100.00
		Anacardiaceae	Rhus verniciflua Stokes	P107	GNP	Onnamu	Stem	Burn, dissolution, powder,	2.86
		Araceae	Pinellia ternata (Thunb.) Breitenb.	P81	JNP	Banha	Corm	Decoction	50.00
		Asteraceae	Artemisia princeps Pamp.	P17	GNP, HNP, JNP	Ssuk	Aerial part, leaf, stem, root, and whole part	Decoction, extraction, infusion, juice, and moxibustion	20.90
			Taraxacum platycarpum Dahlst.	P125	JNP	Mindeulle	Whole part	Juice	14.29
		Dioscoreaceae	Dioscorea batatas Decne.	P39	HNP	Ma	Root	Infusion, raw	6.67
		Ebenaceae	Diospyros kaki Thunb.	P41	GNP, HNP, JNP	Gamnamu	Fruit and peduncle	Decoction, dried persimmon, infusion, and raw	30.40
		Geraniaceae	Geranium thunbergii Siebold and Zucc.	P49	HNP	Ijilpul	Whole part	Decoction	15.38
		Lamiaceae	Leonurus japonicus Houtt.	P61	JNP	Ingmocho	Aerial part	Infusion	3.23
		Liliaceae	Allium fistulosum L.	P9	JNP	Pa	Root	Infusion	100.00
			Allium tuberosum Rottler ex Spreng.	P12	JNP	Buchu	Whole part	Infusion	100.00
		Malvaceae	Hibiscus hamabo Siebold and Zucc.	P53	HNP	Hwanggeun	Root	Decoction	100.00
		Papaveraceae	Papaver somniferum L.	P74	GNP, JNP	Yanggwibi	Fruit, stem, and whole part	Decoction and dissolution	16.67
	Plant	Pinaceae	Pinus densiflora Siebold and Zucc.	P82	JNP	Sonamu	Endodermis	Infusion	100.00
		Plantaginaceae	Plantago asiatica L.	P84	HNP	Jilgyeongi	Whole part	Decoction	6.90
		Poaceae	Oryza sativa var. terrestis Makino	P73	HNP	Sandu	Seed	Porridge	76.92
			Triticum aestivum L.	P129	JNP	Mil	Seed	dissolution	7.69
		Polygonaceae	Rheum rhabarbarum L.	P104	HNP	Daehwang	Root	Decoction	100.00
			Rumex acetosa L.	P113	HNP	Suyeong	Root	Decoction	100.00
		Portulacaceae	Portulaca oleracea L.	P90	GNP	Soebireum	Aerial part	Seasoned cooked vegetables, seasoned with condiments	100.00
		Ranunculaceae	Clematis trichotoma Nakai	P33	JNP	Halmimilmang	Root	Decoction	100.00
			Thalictrum aquilegifolium var. sibiricum Regel and Tiling	P126	JNP	Kkwonguidari	Leaf and stem	Decoction	50.00
		Rutaceae	Zanthoxylum schinifolium Siebold and Zucc.	P138	GNP	Sanchonamu	Fruit	Oil	17.86
		Violaceae	Viola mandshurica W. Becker	P131	JNP	Jebikkot	Whole part	Decoction	100.00
	Animal	Phasianidae	Gallus gallus domesticus L.	A25	GNP	Dak	Egg	Infusion	5.19
		Asteraceae	Artemisia princeps Pamp.	P17	GNP, HNP	Ssuk	Aerial part, leaf, and whole part	Infusion, juice, and moxibustion	6.11
		Fabaceae	Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.	P51	JNP	Gamcho	Root	Decoction and tea	15.38
			Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi	P97	JNP	Chik	Root	Decoction	0.76
Dysentery	Plant	Geraniaceae	Geranium thunbergii Siebold and Zucc.	P49	JNP	Ijilpul	Leaf	Decoction	7.69
		Polygonaceae	Rheum rhabarbarum L.	P104	JNP	Daehwang	Root	Decoction and tea	100.00
		Rosaceae	Sanguisorba officinalis L.	P115	GNP	Oipul	Whole part	Infusion	66.67
		Violaceae	Viola verecunda A. Gray	P132	GNP	Kongjebikkot	Leaf	Seasoned cooked vegetables	100.00
Enteritis	Plant	Ranunculaceae	Thalictrum aquilegifolium var. sibiricum Regel and Tiling	P126	JNP	Kkwonguidari	Leaf, stem	Decoction	50.00
Enterotoxin	Plant	Campanulaceae	Adenophora triphylla var. japonica (Regel) H. Hara	P6	HNP	Jandae	Root	Warm up in a double boiler	100.00
		Cucurbitaceae	Cucurbita moschata Duchesne	P36	HNP	Hobak	Fruit	Warm up in a double boiler	9.09
Gastralgia	Plant	Asteraceae	Artemisia princeps Pamp.	P17	HNP	Ssuk	Young leaf	Juice	1.61
		Formicidae	Formica yessensis Forel	A24	JNP	Bulgaemi	Whole part	Decoction	100.00
		Hominidae	Homo sapiens L.	A29	JNP	Saram	Bone	Burn, pill, and powder	100.00
	Animal	Muridae	Rattus norvegicus Berkenhout	A52	JNP	Jipjwi	Young rat	Fermentation	100.00
		Phasianidae	Gallus gallus domesticus L.	A25	JNP	Dak	Whole part	Decoction	1.30
		Scolopendridae	Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans L. Koch	A54	JNP	Jine	Whole part	Decoction	100.00
Gastric cancer	Fungi	Tricholomataceae	Tricholoma matsutake (S. Ito. and Imai) Sing.	F6	JNP	Songi	Whole part	Infusion	100.00
	Plant	Asteraceae	Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.	P19	JNP	Sapju	Root	Decoction	1.52
		Fabaceae	Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.	P51	JNP	Gamcho	Root	Decoction and roast	7.69
		Poaceae	Hordeum vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Asch.	P54	JNP	Bori	Seed	Decoction and roast	0.69
		Rutaceae	Citrus unshiu S. Marcov.	P30	JNP	Gyul	Pericarp	Decoction	50.00
			Poncirus trifoliata Raf.	P88	JNP	Taengjanamu	Fruit	Decoction	33.33
		Ulmaceae	Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai	P130	HNP, JNP	Neureumnamu	Rhizodermis and root bark	Decoction	3.09
Gastric ulcer	Plant	Asteraceae	Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.	P19	JNP	Sapju	Root	Decoction	1.52
		Poaceae	Hordeum vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Asch.	P54	GNP, JNP	Bori	Malt, seed	A sweet drink made from fermented rice, powder, roast, and steam	2.07
		Ulmaceae	Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai	P130	GNP, JNP	Neureumnamu	Bark	A sweet drink made from fermented rice, decoction, infusion, and tea	11.73
		Anacardiaceae	Rhus verniciflua Stokes	P107	GNP	Onnamu	Bark	Simmer	2.86
		Asteraceae	Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.	P19	GNP	Sapju	Root	A sweet drink made from fermented rice and powder	6.06
		Ericaceae	Rhododendron mucronulatum Turcz. var. mucronulatum	P105	JNP	Jindallae	Flower	Panfried	66.67
		Poaceae	Hordeum vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Asch.	P54	GNP	Bori	Malt, seed	A sweet drink made from fermented rice	1.38
Gastritis	Plant	Ranunculaceae	Clematis terniflora var. mandshurica (Rupr.) Ohwi	P32	HNP	Euari	Root	Taffy	57.14
		Rosaceae	Rosa multiflora Thunb. var. multiflora	P111	JNP	Jjillekkot	Flower, fruit	Decoction, panfried	87.50
		Rutaceae	Citrus unshiu S. Marcov.	P30	JNP	Gyul	Pericarp	Decoction	25.00
			Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC.	P137	GNP	Chopinamu	Fruit	Oil	57.15
		Ulmaceae	Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai	P130	GNP	Neureumnamu	Bark	A sweet drink made from fermented rice	1.23
		Apidae	Apis cerana Fabricius	A7	GNP	Jaeraekkulbeol	Honey	Dissolution and raw	93.10
			Apis mellifera L.	A8	GNP, JNP	Yangbongkkulbeol	Hive, honey, larva, whole part	Decoction, dissolution, power, and raw	90.00
		Blattellidae	Blattella germanica L.	A11	JNP	Bakwi	Whole part	Panbroiled and powder	100.00
		Cervidae	Capreolus capreolus L.	A13	JNP	Noru	Bone	Simmer	100.00
			Capreolus pygargus tianschanicus Satunin	A14	HNP	Noru	Bone	Simmer	100.00
		Colubridae	Dinodon rufozonatumrufozonatum Cantor	A19	JNP	Neunggureongi	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
			Elaphe dione Pallas	A20	JNP	Nurukbaem	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
			Elaphe rufodorsata Cantor	A21	JNP	Mujachi	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
			Elaphe schrenckii Strauch	A22	JNP	Gureongi	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
			Gloydius ussuriensis Emelianov	A27	JNP	Soesalmosa	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
			Rhabdophis tigrinus tigrinus Boie	A53	JNP	Yuhyeolmogi	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
		Columbidae	Streptopelia orientalis Latham	A60	JNP	Metbidulgi	Whole part	Simmer	66.67
		Cyprinidae	Carassius auratus L.	A15	JNP	Bungeo	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
	Animal	Erinaceidae	Erinaceus amurensis Schrenk	A23	GNP	Goseumdochi	Whole part	Infusion	100.00
		Gryllotalpidae	Gryllotalpa orientalis Burmeister	A28	JNP	Ttanggangaji	Whole part	Powder	16.67
		Mytilidae	Mytilus coruscus Gould	A37	HNP	Honghap	Whole part	Decoction	100.00
		Phasianidae	Gallus gallus domesticus L.	A25	GNP, HNP, JNP	Dak	Dung, whole part	Infusion, panbroiled, steep	61.04
			Phasianus colchicus L.	A44	JNP	Kkwong	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
		Pleuroceridae	Semisulcospira coreana Von Martens	A55	JNP	Chamdaseulgi	Whole part	Juice, panbroiled, powder, and simmer	90.91
			Semisulcospira forticosta Von Martens	A56	JNP	Jureumdaseulgi	Whole part	Juice, panbroiled, powder, and simmer	91.67
			Semisulcospira libertina Gould	A57	JNP	Daseulgi	Whole part	Juice, panbroiled, powder, and simmer	91.67
		Sphingidae	Agrius convolvuli L.	A4	JNP	Bakgaksi	Whole part	Infusion, maceration, and powder	100.00
		Suidae	Sus scrofa L.	A61	JNP	Dwaeji	Gallbladder	Dried, mixed in liquor, pill, and simmer	30.00
		Vespidae	Vespula flaviceps lewisii Cameron	A71	JNP	Ttangbeol	Hive, larva	Brewing and decoction	100.00
			Gloydius blomhoffii brevicaudus Stejneger	A2	JNP	Salmosa	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
			Gloydius saxatilis Emelianov	A3	JNP	Kkachisalmosa	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
	Fungi	Ganodermataceae	Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst.	F2	JNP	Yeongji	Whole part	Infusion	11.11
		Aceraceae	Acer pictum subsp. mono (Maxim.) Ohashi	P1	JNP	Gorosoenamu	Sap	Raw	100.00
		Actinidiaceae	Actinidia arguta (Siebold and Zucc.) Planch. ex Miq.	P4	JNP	Darae	Stem	Decoction	33.33
			Actinidia polygama (Siebold and Zucc.) Planch. ex Maxim.	P5	JNP	Gaedarae	Stem	A sweet drink made from fermented rice	100.00
		Anacardiaceae	Rhus verniciflua Stokes	P107	GNP, HNP, JNP	Onnamu	Bark, resin, stem, young leaf	Decoction, dissolution, extraction, infusion, raw, and simmer	72.14
		Apocynaceae	Trachelospermum asiaticum (Siebold and Zucc.) Nakai var. asiaticum	P127	JNP	Masakjul	Leaf, stem	Decoction	100.00
		Araliaceae	Aralia cordata var. continentalis (Kitag.) Y.C.Chu	P14	GNP	Dokhwal	Root	Maceration, mixed in liquor	60.00
			Kalopanax septemlobus (Thunb.) Koidz.	P60	GNP	Eumnamu	Stem	A sweet drink made from fermented rice and brewing	93.33
		Asteraceae	Artemisia capillaris Thunb.	P16	GNP	Sacheolssuk	Whole part	A sweet drink made from fermented rice, pill, and taffy	80.00
			Artemisia princeps Pamp.	P17	GNP, HNP	Ssuk	Leaf, whole part	Decoction, infusion, juice, moxibustion, and powder	12.22
			Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.	P19	GNP, JNP	Sapju	Root	A sweet drink made from fermented rice, decoction, dried, dissolution, infusion, pill, and powder	68.94
			Cirsium japonicum var. maackii (Maxim.) Matsum.	P28	GNP, HNP	Eonggeongkwi	Root	Decoction and juice	60.00
			Petasites japonicus (Siebold and Zucc.) Maxim.	P78	GNP	Meowi	Leaf and stem	Infusion, wrapped in leaves, seasoned cooked vegetables	100.00
			Taraxacum platycarpum Dahlst.	P125	HNP, JNP	Mindeulle	Aerial part and whole part	Decoction, infusion, and tea	85.71
			Xanthium strumarium L.	P136	GNP	Dokkomari	Whole part	A sweet drink made from fermented rice and brewing	100.00
		Cactaceae	Opuntia ficus-indica var. saboten Makino	P71	HNP	Sonbadakseoninjang	Stem	Raw	66.67
		Caprifoliaceae	Lonicera japonica Thunb.	P64	HNP	Indongdeonggul	Flower	Decoction	33.33
		Celastraceae	Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Siebold	P43	GNP, JNP	Hwasallamu	Leaf and stem	Decoction, seasoned cooked vegetables	40.54
			Euonymus hamiltonianus Wall. var. hamiltonianus	P44	JNP	Chambitsallamu	Stem	Infusion	100.00
Gastroenteric trouble		Crassulaceae	Sedum sarmentosum Bunge	P118	GNP	Dollamul	Whole part	Watery plain kimchi	100.00
		Cucurbitaceae	Cucurbita moschata Duchesne	P36	GNP	Hobak	Fruit	Infusion	90.91
			Trichosanthes kirilowii var. japonica Kitam.	P128	HNP	Noranghaneultari	Sap	Sap	100.00
		Dioscoreaceae	Dioscorea batatas Decne.	P39	GNP, JNP	Ma	Root	Decoction, maceration, oil, and raw	90.00
		Dioscoreaceae	Dioscorea japonica Thunb.	P40	GNP	Chamma	Root	Raw	100.00
		Ebenaceae	Diospyros kaki Thunb.	P41	GNP	Gamnamu	peduncle	Infusion	8.00
		Ericaceae	Rhododendron mucronulatum Turcz. var. mucronulatum	P105	JNP	Jindallae	Flower	Extraction	33.33
		Euphorbiaceae	Ricinus communis L.	P109	JNP	Pimaja	Seed	Oil	0.83
		Fabaceae	Caragana sinica (Buc'hoz) Rehder	P23	GNP	Goldamcho	Root	A sweet drink made from fermented rice	100.00
			Glycine max (L.) Merr.	P50	GNP, JNP	Kong	Seed	Dissolution and fermentation	37.65
			Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.	P51	GNP, HNP, JNP	Gamcho	Root	Decoction	30.77
			Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi	P97	GNP, HNP, JNP	Chik	Root	Boiled rice, brewing, decoction, infusion, juice, and maceration	46.21
			Sophora flavescens Solander ex Aiton	P122	GNP, HNP	Gosam	Fruit, root	Decoction, infusion, and raw	68.75
		Lamiaceae	Leonurus japonicus Houtt.	P61	HNP	Ingmocho	Aerial part	Decoction	6.45
	Plant		Perilla frutescens var. japonica (Hassk.) Hara	P77	GNP	Deulkkae	Seed	Seasoned cooked vegetables	36.36
			Salvia plebeia R.Br.	P114	GNP, JNP	Baeamchajeugi	Leaf, whole part	Decoction and infusion	50.00
		Lauraceae	Machilus thunbergii Siebold and Zucc.	P66	HNP	Hubangnamu	Bark	Decoction	75.00
		Liliaceae	Allium scorodoprasum var. viviparum Regel	P11	HNP	Maneul	Bulb	Decoction	21.43
			Polygonatum odoratum var. pluriflorum (Miq.) Ohwi	P87	HNP	Dunggulle	Root	Tea	40.00
		Meliaceae	Melia azedarach L.	P68	HNP	Meolguseulnamu	Root bark	Taffy	5.26
		Menispermaceae	Cocculus trilobus (Thunb.) DC.	P34	GNP	Daengdaengideonggul	Root, stem	Infusion and maceration	78.05
		Moraceae	Morus bombycis Koidz. var. bombycis	P70	JNP	Sanppongnamu	Root	Decoction and infusion	100.00
		Oleaceae	Ligustrum obtusifolium Siebold and Zucc.	P62	JNP	Jwittongnamu	Fruit	Decoction	100.00
		Orchidaceae	Gastrodia elata Blume	P46	JNP	Cheonma	Tuber	Porridge	100.00
		Papaveraceae	Papaver somniferum L.	P74	HNP	Yanggwibi	Latex	Extraction	0.79
		Pinaceae	Pinus koraiensis Siebold and Zucc.	P83	JNP	Jannamu	Seed	Raw	100.00
		Plantaginaceae	Plantago asiatica L.	P84	GNP, HNP	Jilgyeongi	Leaf, petiole, whole part	Decoction	72.41
		Poaceae	Hordeum vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Asch.	P54	GNP, JNP	Bori	Malt, seed	A sweet drink made from fermented rice, pill, and taffy	33.79
			Triticum aestivum L.	P129	GNP	Mil	Seed	A sweet drink made from fermented rice and brewing	50.00
		Ranunculaceae	Aconitum ciliare DC.	P2	JNP	Notjeotgarangnamul	Root	Infusion and pill	14.29
			Clematis florida Thunb.	P31	JNP	Wiryeongseon	Root	Decoction	100.00
			Clematis terniflora var. mandshurica (Rupr.) Ohwi	P32	HNP	Euari	Root	Decoction	42.86
			Pulsatilla koreana (Yabe ex Nakai) Nakai ex Nakai	P98	GNP, JNP	Halmikkot	Root	A sweet drink made from fermented rice, grain syrup, and infusion	41.79
		Rhamnaceae	Ziziphus jujuba var. inermis (Bunge) Rehder	P142	GNP, HNP	Daechunamu	Fruit	Infusion, simmer	100.00
		Rosaceae	Prunus mume Siebold and Zucc.	P94	JNP	Maesillamu	Fruit	Extraction	2.99
			Rosa davurica Pall.	P110	JNP	Saengyeolgwinamu	Fruit	Brewing	100.00
			Sanguisorba officinalis L.	P115	HNP	Oipul	Root	Decoction	11.11
		Rutaceae	Phellodendron amurense Rupr.	P79	HNP	Hwangbyeongnamu	Inner layer of bark	Decoction	15.38
			Zanthoxylum schinifolium Siebold and Zucc.	P138	JNP	Sanchonamu	Seed	Oil	21.43
		Salicaceae	Populus maximowiczii A. Henry	P89	GNP	Hwangcheollamu	Endodermis	Infusion	100.00
		Saururaceae	Houttuynia cordata Thunb.	P55	HNP	Yangmomil	Whole part	Decoction	100.00
			Saururus chinensis (Lour.) Baill.	P116	HNP	Sambaekcho	Whole part	Infusion	50.00
		Schisandraceae	Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill.	P117	HNP	Omija	Fruit, root, stem	Brewing	33.33
		Scrophulariaceae	Rehmannia glutinosa (Gaertn.) Libosch. ex Steud.	P103	JNP	Jihwang	Root	Brewing	100.00
		Solanaceae	Lycium chinense Mill.	P65	GNP, HNP	Gugijanamu	Fruit	Decoction and tea	100.00
		Ulmaceae	Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai	P130	GNP, HNP, JNP	Neureumnamu	Bark, leaf, endodermis, rhizodermis, root, stem	A sweet drink made from fermented rice, boiling, decoction, dried, infusion, powder, simmer, and tea	71.60
		Zingiberaceae	Curcuma longa L.	P38	JNP	Ulgeum	Root	Tea	100.00
			Zingiber officinale Roscoe	P140	HNP	Saenggang	Rhizome	Simmer	100.00
Gastroptosis	Plant	Asteraceae	Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.	P19	JNP	Sapju	Root	Decoction	0.76
		Gentianaceae	Gentiana scabra Bunge	P47	JNP	Yongdam	Root	Tea	4.00
		Poaceae	Hordeum vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Asch.	P54	JNP	Bori	Seed	Powder, roast, and steam	0.69
Heartburn	Plant	Asteraceae	Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.	P19	GNP	Sapju	Root	Powder	2.27
		Celastraceae	Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Siebold	P43	GNP	Hwasallamu	Leaf, stem	Decoction and seasoned cooked vegetables	29.73
		Rosaceae	Potentilla chinensis Ser.	P91	GNP	Ttakjikkot	Root	Infusion and raw	50.00
			Prunus mume Siebold and Zucc.	P94	GNP	Maesillamu	Fruit	Extraction	3.73
		Ulmaceae	Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai	P130	GNP	Neureumnamu	Bark	Tea	1.85
Hema feces	Animal	Anguillidae	Anguilla japonica Temminck and Schlegel	A6	JNP	Baemjangeo	Whole part	Simmer	50.00
			Cetonia pilifera Motschulsky	A16	JNP	Kkonmuji	Larva	Brewing	100.00
			Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis Kolbe	A46	JNP	Huinjeombagikkonmuji	Larva	Brewing	100.00
			Protaetia mandschuriensis Schurhoff	A47	JNP	Manjujeombagikkonmuji	Larva	Brewing	100.00
	Plant	Rosaceae	Rosa rugosa Thunb. var. rugosa	P112	JNP	Haedanghwa	Leaf, root	Decoction	100.00
Hematemesis	Plant	Theaceae	Camellia japonica L.	P21	JNP	Dongbaengnamu	Fruit	Decoction	20.00
Hookworm	Plant	Araceae	Pinellia ternata (Thunb.) Breitenb.	P81	JNP	Banha	Corm	Decoction	50.00
		Meliaceae	Melia azedarach L.	P68	HNP	Meolguseulnamu	Fruit, leaf, root bark	Decoction, taffy	26.32
	Alga	Gelidiaceae	Gelidium amansii J. V. Lamour.	AL1	HNP	Umutgasari	Thallus	Decoction	100.00
	Animal	Cobitidae	Misgurnus mizolepis Günther	A35	GNP	Mikkuraji	Whole part	Raw	100.00
		Gadidae	Theragra chalcogramma Pallas	A66	JNP	Myeongtae	Whole part	Decoction	100.00
		Mantidae	Tenodera angustipennis Saussure	A64	JNP	Samagwi	Whole part	Powder	50.00
			Tenodera sinensis Saussure	A65	GNP, JNP	Wangsamagwi	Whole part	Infusion, powder	50.00
		Octopodidae	Paroctopus dofleini Wulker	A42	JNP	Muneo	Whole part	Simmer	100.00
		Pleuroceridae	Semisulcospira coreana Von Martens	A55	JNP	Chamdaseulgi	Whole part	Simmer	9.09
			Semisulcospira forticosta Von Martens	A56	JNP	Jureumdaseulgi	Whole part	Simmer	8.33
			Semisulcospira libertina Gould	A57	JNP	Daseulgi	Whole part	Simmer	8.33
		Sergestidae	Acetes japonicus Kishinouye	A1	GNP	Jeotsaeu	Whole part	Fermentation	100.00
	Fungi	Ganodermataceae	Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst.	F2	GNP	Yeongji	Whole part	Infusion	66.67
		Polyporaceae	Fomes fomentarius (L.: Fr.) Fr.	F1	JNP	Malgupbeoseot	Whole part	Decoction	33.33
		Thelephoraceae	Sarcodon aspratus (Berk.) S. Ito	F5	JNP	Neungi	Whole part	Decoction, seasoned cooked vegetables, soup	100.00
		Amaranthaceae	Amaranthus mangostanus L.	P13	JNP	Bireum	Leaf	Dried persimmon, infusion	100.00
		Anacardiaceae	Rhus verniciflua Stokes	P107	GNP, JNP	Onnamu	Stem	Infusion	10.71
		Araliaceae	Aralia cordata var. continentalis (Kitag.) Y. C. Chu	P14	JNP	Dokhwal	Root	Decoction, tea	10.00
			Aralia elata (Miq.) Seem.	P15	JNP	Dureumnamu	Root	Infusion	100.00
			Kalopanax septemlobus (Thunb.) Koidz.	P60	GNP	Eumnamu	Stem	Infusion	6.67
		Aristolochiaceae	Asarum sieboldii Miq.	P18	JNP	Jokdoripul	Root	Infusion, pill	100.00
		Aspleniaceae	Pteridium aquilinum var. latiusculum (Desv.) Underw. ex Hell.	P96	JNP	Gosari	Root	Decoction, infusion	100.00
		Asteraceae	Artemisia capillaris Thunb.	P16	GNP	Sacheolssuk	Leaf, stem	Decoction	20.00
			Artemisia princeps Pamp.	P17	GNP, JNP	Ssuk	Leaf, root, whole part	Juice	7.72
			Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.	P19	GNP, JNP	Sapju	Root	Brewing, decoction, infusion, panbroiled, pill, powder	18.18
			Helianthus annuus L.	P52	JNP	Haebaragi	Flower	Decoction	100.00
			Inula helenium L.	P57	JNP	Mokhyang	Root	Decoction	100.00
		Balsaminaceae	Impatiens balsamina L.	P56	GNP, JNP	Bongseonhwa	Flower, root, whole part	Infusion	100.00
		Betulaceae	Betula costata Trautv.	P20	GNP	Geojesunamu	Sap	Raw	100.00
		Bignoniaceae	Catalpa ovata G. Don	P26	GNP	Gaeodong	Stem	Infusion	100.00
		Boraginaceae	Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold and Zucc.	P63	GNP	Jichi	Root	Panbroiled, steep	88.89
		Caprifoliaceae	Lonicera japonica Thunb.	P64	JNP	Indongdeonggul	Stem	Infusion	66.67
		Cyperaceae	Carex curta Gooden.	P24	JNP	Sansacho	Fruit	Decoction	100.00
		Dioscoreaceae	Dioscorea batatas Decne.	P39	JNP	Ma	Root	Decoction	3.33
		Ebenaceae	Diospyros kaki Thunb.	P41	GNP, JNP	Gamnamu	Fruit, peduncle	Dried persimmon, infusion, raw	59.20
Indigestion		Euphorbiaceae	Ricinus communis L.	P109	GNP, JNP	Pimaja	Fruit, seed	Oil, panfried	54.55
		Fabaceae	Glycine max (L.) Merr.	P50	JNP	Kong	Seed	Fermentation, dissolution	38.82
			Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi	P97	GNP	Chik	Root	Clear soup with flour dumplings, juice, tea	27.27
			Rhynchosia volubilis Lour.	P108	JNP	Jwinunikong	Seed	Decoction	100.00
			Sophora flavescens Solander ex Aiton	P122	JNP	Gosam	Root	Decoction, infusion, juice, maceration, panbroiled	25.00
		Fagaceae	Castanea crenata Siebold and Zucc.	P25	GNP, JNP	Bamnamu	Bark, nut	Infusion, tea	100.00
		Lamiaceae	Leonurus japonicus Houtt.	P61	JNP	Ingmocho	Aerial part	Juice	1.61
			Perilla frutescens var. acuta Kudo	P76	JNP	Soyeop	Leaf	Decoction	100.00
	Plant	Lardizabalaceae	Akebia quinata (Houtt.) Decne.	P8	JNP	Eureumdeonggul	Stem	Infusion	14.29
		Lauraceae	Machilus thunbergii Siebold and Zucc.	P66	JNP	Hubangnamu	Bark	Decoction	25.00
		Liliaceae	Allium microdictyon Prokh.	P10	JNP	Sanmaneul	Root	Decoction	50.00
			Polygonatum odoratum var. pluriflorum (Miq.) Ohwi	P87	JNP	Dunggulle	Root	Tea	20.00
		Loranthaceae	Viscum album var. coloratum (Kom.) Ohwi	P133	JNP	Gyeousari	Whole part	A sweet drink made from fermented rice	100.00
		Menispermaceae	Cocculus trilobus (Thunb.) DC.	P34	GNP	Daengdaengideonggul	Root	Juice	9.76
		Moraceae	Cudrania tricuspidata (Carr.) Bureau ex Lavallee	P37	JNP	Kkujippongnamu	Root	Decoction	100.00
		Phytolaccaceae	Phytolacca esculenta VanHoutte	P80	GNP, JNP	Jarigong	Root	A sweet drink made from fermented rice, infusion	35.29
		Poaceae	Hordeum vulgare var. hexastichon (L.) Asch.	P54	GNP, HNP, JNP	Bori	Malt, seed	A sweet drink made from fermented rice, brewing, decoction, dissolution, infusion, juice, maceration, steep, tea	55.86
			Oryza sativa L.	P72	GNP	Byeo	Stem	Infusion	57.14
			Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv.	P119	HNP	Jo	Seed	A sweet drink made from fermented rice	100.00
			Triticum aestivum L.	P129	GNP	Mil	Seed	Brewing, clear soup with flour dumplings, extraction	38.46
		Ranunculaceae	Aconitum ciliare DC.	P2	JNP	Notjeotgarangnamul	Root	Decoction, infusion, pill	85.71
			Pulsatilla koreana (Yabe ex Nakai) Nakai ex Nakai	P98	JNP	Halmikkot	Root	Grain syrup	5.97
		Rosaceae	Malus sieboldii (Regel) Rehder	P67	JNP	Ageubaenamu	Fruit	Decoction, infusion	100.00
			Prunus armeniaca var. ansu Maxim.	P92	GNP, JNP	Salgunamu	Seed	Maceration, raw	100.00
			Prunus mume Siebold and Zucc.	P94	GNP, HNP, JNP	Maesillamu	Fruit	Brewing, dissolution, extraction	49.25
			Pyrus pyrifolia (Burm. f.) Nakai	P100	JNP	Dolbaenamu	Fruit	Brewing	100.00
			Pyrus pyrifolia var. culta (Makino) Nakai	P101	GNP	Baenamu	Fruit	Infusion	100.00
			Rosa multiflora Thunb. var. multiflora	P111	JNP	Jjillekkot	Fruit	Decoction	12.50
			Spiraea prunifolia f. simpliciflora Nakai	P124	GNP	Jopamnamu	Root, stem	Infusion	100.00
		Rutaceae	Citrus unshiu S. Marcov.	P30	JNP	Gyul	Pericarp	Decoction	25.00
			Phellodendron amurense Rupr.	P79	GNP	Hwangbyeongnamu	Bark, endodermis	Infusion, steep	76.92
			Poncirus trifoliata Raf.	P88	HNP, JNP	Taengjanamu	Fruit	Decoction, simmer	66.67
			Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC.	P137	HNP, JNP	Chopinamu	Fruit	Decoction, oil	42.86
			Zanthoxylum schinifolium Siebold and Zucc.	P138	GNP, JNP	Sanchonamu	Fruit, seed	Oil	25.00
		Scrophulariaceae	Paulownia coreana Uyeki	P75	GNP	Odongnamu	Stem	Infusion	100.00
		Solanaceae	Solanum nigrum L.	P121	GNP, JNP	Kkamajung	Aerial part, fruit, leaf, root, whole part	Dried, infusion, juice	88.24
		Theaceae	Camellia sinensis L.	P22	JNP	Chanamu	Leaf	Decoction	100.00
		Ulmaceae	Celtis sinensis Pers.	P27	HNP	Paengnamu	Fruit	Dried, powder	100.00
			Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai	P130	GNP	Neureumnamu	Bark	A sweet drink made from fermented rice, infusion	8.64
Intestinal disease	Plant	Asteraceae	Cirsium japonicum var. spinossimum Kitam.	P29	HNP	Gasieonggeongkwi	Root	Decoction	100.00
		Rosaceae	Sorbus commixta Hedl.	P123	JNP	Magamok	Fruit	Brewing	100.00
Stomach cramp	Animal	Phasianidae	Gallus gallus domesticus L.	A25	JNP	Dak	Whole part	Simmer	1.30
	Plant	Ranunculaceae	Pulsatilla koreana (Yabe ex Nakai) Nakai ex Nakai	P98	HNP	Halmikkot	Leaf	Rubbing	7.46
Stomach problem	Animal	Phasianidae	Gallus gallus domesticus L.	A25	JNP	Dak	Whole part	Simmer	1.30
		Asteraceae	Atractylodes ovata (Thunb.) DC.	P19	GNP	Sapju	Root	Powder	2.27
		Celastraceae	Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Siebold	P43	GNP	Hwasallamu	Leaf, stem	Decoction, seasoned cooked vegetables	29.73
		Poaceae	Oryza sativa var. terrestis Makino	P73	HNP	Sandu	Seed	Porridge	7.69
	Plant	Rosaceae	Potentilla chinensis Ser.	P91	GNP	Ttakjikkot	Root	Infusion, raw	50.00
			Prunus mume Siebold and Zucc.	P94	GNP	Maesillamu	Fruit	Extraction	3.73
		Ulmaceae	Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai	P130	GNP	Neureumnamu	Bark	Tea	1.85
Stomachic		Liliaceae	Allium microdictyon Prokh.	P10	JNP	Sanmaneul	Root	Decoction	50.00
Vomiting	Animal	Apidae	Apis cerana Fabricius	A7	GNP	Jaeraekkulbeol	Honey	Dissolution, raw	3.45
	Plant	Verbenaceae	Vitex rotundifolia L.f.	P134	HNP	Sunbiginamu	Fruit	Decoction	100.00

∗A: animal, P: plant, F: fungi, and AL: alga.

∗∗Region: JNP: Jirisan National Park, GNP: Gayasan National Park, and HNP: Hallasan National Park.

Table 4

Analytic results of ethnomedicinal practices recorded in the three national parks.

Results	JNP	GNP	HNP	Total
Species	166	76	58	220
Therapies (kinds)	272	176	92	490
Used parts	32	21	20	43
Preparations (modes)	28	34	21	42
Disorders (types)	20	11	16	24

A total of 490 ethnomedicinal practices recorded from the communities were classified into 110 families, 176 genera, and 220 species that included plants, animals, fungi, and alga (Table 4). Among these species, plants totaled 361 ethnomedicinal practices based on 142 species, while animals included 119 ethnomedicinal practices based on 71 species. Fungi recorded 9 ethnomedicinal practices based on six species while alga included one ethnomedicinal practice based on one species. These usage patterns were different from Korean traditional medicine, in which plants are used relatively much more than animals. Research confirms that communities have focused on the functional supplements from these ethnomedicinal practices rather than seeking after an actual cure for their gastrointestinal disorders.

The residents of these communities have applied the ethnomedicinal practices for gastroenteric trouble and indigestion more than any other disorder. Namely, the number of medicinal species and ethnomedicinal practices for gastroenteric trouble consisted of 94 species (42.7% of the total species) and 179 ethnomedicinal practices (36.5% of the total practices). Indigestion used 72 species (32.7% of the total species) and 131 ethnomedicinal practices (26.7% of the total practices) (Table 5).

Table 5

Number of times mentioned by informants and medicinal species for treating each disorder.

Diseases	JNP	GNP	HNP	Total
	Number of times mentioned (species)	Number of times mentioned (species)	Number of times mentioned (species)	Number of times mentioned (species)
Abdominal pain	161 (21)	516 (32)	82 (16)	759 (59)
Acute gastroenteritis	41 (8)		6 (3)	47 (11)
Constipation	115 (15)	142 (3)	36 (4)	293 (20)
Deficiency of intestinal function	19 (5)			19 (5)
Diarrhea	111 (36)	87 (8)	39 (9)	237 (48)
Dysentery	6 (4)	42 (4)	3 (1)	51 (8)
Enteritis	2 (1)			2 (1)
Enterotoxin			2 (2)	2 (2)
Gastralgia			5 (1)	5 (1)
Gastric cancer	14 (12)		3 (1)	17 (12)
Gastric ulcer	3 (3)	20 (2)		23 (3)
Gastritis	12 (3)	20 (5)	4 (1)	36 (9)
Gastroenteric trouble	238 (54)	755 (35)	118 (30)	1,111 (94)
Gastroptosis	3 (3)			3 (3)
Heartburn		28 (5)		28 (5)
Hema feces	6 (5)			6 (5)
Hematemesis	1 (1)			1 (1)
Hookworm	1 (1)		5 (1)	6 (2)
Indigestion	302 (52)	829 (31)	21 (7)	1,152 (72)
Intestinal ailment	2 (1)		1 (1)	3 (2)
Stomach cramp	1 (1)		5 (1)	6 (2)
Stomach problem	6 (4)	28 (5)	2 (1)	31 (7)
Stomachic	1 (1)			1 (1)
Vomiting	1 (1)	1 (1)	4 (1)	5 (2)
Total	1,040 (166)	2,468 (76)	336 (58)	3,844 (220)

Also, the number of informants who mentioned gastroenteric trouble and cases of indigestion occupied 28.9%, which totaled 30.0% of the whole, respectively (Table 5). As a result, the communities tended to use ethnomedicinal practices to care for their overall health instead of as a cure for a long-term condition.

For plants, 29 used parts were used in practice, while 14 used parts of animals and one used part of fungi and alga were used in treatment. Preparations of the plants consisted of 41 kinds, with 16 preparations for animals, six preparations for fungi, and one preparation for alga (Table 4). These usage patterns are similar to previous research for other diseases [14-16].

3.3. Quantitative Analysis

3.3.1. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF)

The informant consensus factor ranges from 0 to 1, where the increasing values indicate a higher rate of informant consensus among the category of disorders.

The category with the highest degree of consensus from the informants were enteritis and gastralgia (1.0), followed by indigestion (0.94), constipation (0.93), abdominal pain and gastroenteric trouble (0.92), and gastric ulcers (0.91). The lowest degree of consensus was for gastroptosis, enterotoxin, hema feces, and other disorders (Table 6). These results denote that ethnomedicinal practices have been applied more often to minor health issues related to gastrointestinal disorders.

Table 6

Informant consensus factor (ICF) of the communities of three national parks.

Disorders	JNP	GNP	HNP	Total
Abdominal pain	0.88	0.94	0.81	0.92
Acute gastroenteritis	0.83	−	0.60	0.78
Constipation	0.88	0.99	0.91	0.93
Deficiency of intestinal function	0.78	−	−	0.78
Diarrhea	0.68	0.92	0.79	0.80
Dysentery	0.40	0.93	1.00	0.86
Enteritis	1.00	−	−	1.00
Enterotoxin	−	−	+	+
Gastralgia	−	−	1.00	1.00
Gastric cancer	+	0.95	1.00	+
Gastric ulcer	+	−	−	0.91
Gastritis	0.82	0.79	1.00	0.77
Gastroenteric trouble	0.78	0.95	0.75	0.92
Gastroptosis	+	−	−	+
Heartburn	−	0.85	−	0.85
Hema feces	+	−	−	+
Hematemesis	+	−	−	+
Hookworm	+	−	1.00	0.80
Indigestion	0.83	0.96	0.70	0.94
Intestinal ailment	1.00	−	+	0.50
Stomach cramp	+	−	1.00	0.80
Stomach problem	0.40	0.85	1.00	0.80
Stomachic	+	−	−	+
Vomiting	−	+	1.00	0.75

−: Ailments were not mentioned in each national park.

+: Below 0.40.

Generally, people suffering from serious gastrointestinal disorders have been treated in the hospital using conventional medicine or Korean traditional medicine. However, ethnomedicinal practices have been used to cure minor disorders.

Comparative consideration to results of the ICF among the three national parks and the agreement of consensus (ICF value, 1.00) from the informants in HNP obtained eight disorders, which include dysentery, gastralgia, gastric cancer, gastritis, hookworm, stomach cramps, stomach problems, and vomiting, while JNP and GNP depicted only enteritis and constipation, respectively.

These results confirm that the people of HNP have nearly the same ethnomedicinal knowledge for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders because the communities have been isolated from other communities for many years.

3.3.2. Fidelity Level (FL)

The FL is useful for identifying the informants' most preferred species in use for treating certain gastrointestinal disorders. This information reveals that the informants had a tendency to rely on one specific species for treating one specific disorder rather than for several different disorders. The FL values in this study varied from 1.0% to 100%.

Generally, a FL of 100% for a specific species indicates that all of the use-reports mentioned the same species for a specific treatment [41].

This study determined 71 species of plants with a FL of 100%, even without considering species that were mentioned more than two times (Table 3). Among them, plants with a FL of 100% in JNP totaled 52 species, followed by 40 species in GNP, and 23 species in HNP.

Disorders containing a higher number of species assessed to a FL of 100% were gastroenteric trouble (19 species) and cases of indigestion (22 species).

Special attention was given to important species (N, Np) with a FL above 100%, regarding the viewpoint of the number of times mentioned and the consensus level for the specific disorders, which include Spiraea prunifolia f. simpliciflora Nakai (224, 224), Impatiens balsamina L. as plants and Acetes japonicus Kishinouye (17, 17) as an animal cure for indigestion, Xanthium strumarium L. and Petasites japonicas (Siebold and Zucc.) Maxim. as plants used for curing gastroenteric trouble, Zinnia violacea Cav. and Platycarya strobilacea Siebold and Zucc. as plants used in treating abdominal pain, and Viola verecunda A. Gray as a plant used in treating dysentery (Table 3).

Through further study, these species possess a much higher potential in being used in the development of new functional supplements for treating specific gastrointestinal disorders.

3.3.3. INA between Gastrointestinal Disorders and Medicinal Species

INA has originally analyzed social phenomenon and trends through the internetwork of components [42]. Our research has attempted to analyze the interrelationship between gastrointestinal disorders and the medicinal species recorded in the communities.

Considering Figure 2 about the internetwork between disorders and the medicinal species within all communities of this study, all medicinal species are grouped in the center for indigestion, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and gastroenteric trouble (Figure 2(a)), respectively. This distribution pattern is similar to the results of JNP and GNP. However, in case of HNP, indigestion is separated from the main disorders groups. This difference caused that the communities of HNP have been separated from the land communities for a long period of time.

Figure 2

Internetwork analysis (INA) of three national parks ((a) total, (b) JNP, (c) GNP, and (d) HNP). ∗Abbreviation form of each is explained in Table 3: A (animal), P (plant), F (fungi), AL (algae), □ (species), and ◯ (disorders).

In regard to the INA distribution map for JNP, the locations for the disorders of hema feces, intestinal disease, and hematemesis were fairly distinct from the four main disorders groups. Also, the cure for enteritis, hookworm, intestinal disease, stomach cramp, and stomachic is applied for only one medicinal species (Figure 2(b)).

In the case of GNP, gastritis, gastric ulcers, heartburn, and stomach problems were located as a distinct group separated from the four main disorder groups. Because this group consisted of minor stomach ailments having similar inclination, Zanthoxylum piperitum (L.) DC., Potentilla chinensis Ser., Euonymus alatus (Thunb.) Siebold, Atractylodes ovate (Thunb.) DC., and Ulmus davidiana var. japonica (Rehder) Nakai worked as possible cures as they possessed a high possibility in containing the same components for treatment (Figure 2(c)).

Within HNP, indigestion, intestinal disease, vomiting, stomach cramps, and enterotoxin were individually distinct from the three main disorder groups. This distribution pattern suggests that the application width of medicinal species to treat each disorder is limited for treating each disorder relative to the other communities (Figure 2(d)).

4. Conclusion

This research is the first study in the world to analyze and compare the ethnomedicinal practices of communities for treating gastrointestinal disorders. As the research method of this study, comparative quantitative analysis will contribute to the availability of orally transmitted ethnomedicinal knowledge. Additionally, the results of this study are confirmed due to the results obtained through investigation by 507 informants within the 185 research sites.

From this research, the recording of 490 ethnomedicinal practices being applied to the use of 220 medicinal species to treat 24 gastrointestinal disorders was extremely valuable. Particularly, the present usage of various medicinal species displays evidence as to which ethnomedicinal practices are continuously transmitted within the communities. However, this present situation is not sustainable because the communities of these study areas consist of an aging society. It has become necessary for appropriate measures to be taken to conserve these ethnomedicinal practices.

Our research suggests that treatment for gastroenteric trouble and indigestion among the gastrointestinal disorders uses ethnomedicinal practices more than any other type of treatment, as the communities used 75.5% of all medicinal species for treating these two diseases, 63.3% of the total number of all ethnomedicinal practices, and mentioned by 58.9% of all informants. Also, these two disorders contained the highest numbers of medicinal species within a FL of 100%. Through further study, the ethnomedicinal practices for these conditions possess a much higher potential in being used in the development of new practices.

According to the number of medicinal species applied to ethnomedicinal practices and the number of disorders treated by these ethnomedicinal practices, the numbers of JNP were much higher than the other two national parks. It is inferred that the region of JNP was the original center of Korean traditional medicine.

On the other hand, the communities of HNP depict a higher degree of agreement in the consensus to ethnomedicinal practices. This data explains that the communities of HNP, as island people, were limited in their movement to other regions and strictly collected large amounts of independent ethnomedicinal knowledge, only sharing within their own communities, which was distinct from the inland communities.

These trends were confirmed by the results of the INA as the internetwork maps of JNP and GNP were similar, while the map of HNP was moderately different. These results are reflected by the three-dimensional patterns of the ethnomedicinal knowledge held within the communities of each national park.

More specifically, the use of INA as a tool of quantitative analysis in this study provides valuable internetwork maps between gastrointestinal disorders and medicinal species.

These maps are important data to understand the specific interrelationships between disease and ethnomedicinal practices in the intra- and intercommunities.

The authors believe that INA is a useful new tool for providing various interpretations to ethnomedicinal knowledge in the intra- and intercommunities. This study provides confidence in that the useful value of INA will extend beyond the existing understanding of ethnomedicinal knowledge for the future research of ethnomedicinal knowledge.