Confusion and its dynamics during device comprehension with breakdown scenarios.

The incidence and dynamics of confusion during complex learning and problem solving were investigated in an experiment where participants first read illustrated texts on everyday devices (e.g., an electric bell) followed by breakdown scenarios reflecting device malfunctions (e.g., "When a person rang the bell there was a short ding and then no sound was heard"). The breakdown scenarios were expected to trigger impasses and put participants in a state of cognitive disequilibrium where they would experience confusion and engage in effortful confusion resolution activities in order to restore equilibrium. The results confirmed that participants reported more confusion when presented with the breakdown scenarios compared to control scenarios that involved focusing on important device components in the absence of malfunctions. A second-by-second analysis of the dynamics of confusion yielded two characteristic trajectories that distinguished participants who partially resolved their confusion from those who remained confused. Participants who were successful in partial confusion resolution while processing the breakdowns outperformed their counterparts on knowledge assessments after controlling for scholastic aptitude, engagement, and frustration. This effect was amplified for those who were highly confused by the breakdowns. There was no direct breakdown vs. control effect on learning, but being actively engaged and partially resolving confusion during breakdown processing were positive predictors of increased learning with the breakdown compared to control scenarios. Implications of our findings for theories that highlight the role of impasses, cognitive disequilibrium, and confusion to learning are discussed.