Context-dependent cooperation between nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and the glucocorticoid receptor at a TNFAIP3 intronic enhancer: a mechanism to maintain negative feedback control of inflammation.

TNF expression is elevated in asthma and other inflammatory airway diseases that are commonly treated with glucocorticoid-based therapies, but the impact of glucocorticoids on negative feedback control of TNF is not well understood. We analyzed the effect of dexamethasone, a potent synthetic glucocorticoid, on TNF-regulated gene expression in cultured airway epithelial cells. Although dexamethasone-mediated activation of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) potently repressed expression of IL1β, IL8, and several other pro-inflammatory TNF targets, the expression of anti-inflammatory TNF targets such as TNFAIP3 (A20) and NFKBIA was selectively spared or augmented by dexamethasone treatment. Despite divergent effects on gene expression, GR and NF-κB occupancy at the TNFAIP3 locus and GR-repressed targets was similar. A co-occupied intronic TNFAIP3 regulatory element mediated cooperative enhancement of transcription by GR and NF-κB that required the presence of a functional GR binding site (GBS). GBS exchanges between reporters for TNFAIP3 and FKBP5, a canonical GR-induced target, revealed substantial latitude in the GBS sequence requirements for GR/NF-κB cooperation, suggesting that the TNFAIP3 GBS acts primarily as a docking site in this context. Supporting this notion, a selective GR ligand with only weak agonist activity for induction of FKBP5 enabled robust GR/NF-κB cooperative induction of a mutant TNFAIP3 reporter harboring the FKBP5 GBS. Taken together, our data support a model in which the expression of anti-inflammatory targets of TNF is maintained during treatment with glucocorticoids through context-dependent cooperation between GR and NF-κB.